■ 




H 



^M 



: 






FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD 

TO THE PRESENT TIME 



For Schools and Colleges 



JOHN MacCARTHY. 



SECOND EDITION, 






New York: 
THE CATHOLIC PUBLICATION SOCIETY CO. 

9 BARCLAY STREET. 

1882. 






iTHE LIBRARY I 

iOF CONGRESS * 

WASHINGTON (• 

Copyrighted by 
THE CATHOLIC PUBLICATION SOCIETY CO. 

1882, 



H. J. HEWITT, PRINTER, 27 ROSE STREET, NEW TORE. 



PREFACE 



HIS text-book is prepared with a view of grouping 
and presenting in a clear and comprehensive form 
the chief events in the history of all the peoples 
who have played or are playing an important part in the 
world. It takes in the ancient races from the creation of 
man down : Egypt; the Assyrian and Babylonian Empires ; 
the Jews ; Media and Persia ; Phoenicia and Carthage ; 
Greece and the empire of Alexander ; the Eoman Kepub- 
lic and Empire ; the disruption of that empire and the 
slow formation of the Christian states ; the great mediae- 
val period with its wonderful movements ; and the mod- 
ern period, dating from the Protestant Eeformation down 
to the present day. This covers the whole map of hu- 
man history ; and students are thus enabled to gain in 
a single volume a general and, it is to be hoped, a 
sound and intelligent view of the history of the world into 
which they are born. The book has been prepared espe- 
cially to meet the wants of those who, from whatever 
cause, are prevented from devoting sufficient time to the 
study of special epochs, or special races and peoples, in 

7 



8 Preface. 

history. In a work of this kind two difficulties present 
themselves : one is to fasten on the chief events and 
personages in the history of each people and give them 
due prominence ; the other to construct an interesting 
and continuous narrative out of what is necessarily but 
the skeleton of history. These difficulties it has been 
the writer's aim to overcome. The questions at the foot 
of the page will be found of equal benefit to both teach- 
er and pupil. 

John MacCakthy. 

New York, July, 1883. 



CONTENTS. 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 

CHAPTER I. 

PAGE 

Egypt, 21 

Section 1. Ancient Empire. Sec. 2. New Empire ; Kings of the Eight- 
eenth and Nineteenth Dynasties ; Thontmosis III. and Eamses II. 
Sec. 3. Decline of the New Empire: Ethiopian Kings (725-665 B.C.), 
and Saite Kings (665-525 B.C.) ; Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses (525 
B.C.) Sec. 4. Religion, Government, Laws, Science, etc., of the Egyp- 
tians. 

CHAPTER II. 
Assyria and Babylon, 31 

Section 1. Babylon and Ninive : First Assyrian Empire (1314-789 B.C.); 
Second Assyrian Empire (744-625 B.C.) Sec. 2. Babylonian or Chaldean 
Empire (625-538 B.C.) Sec. 3. Religion, Government, etc. 

CHAPTER III. 
The Hebrews, 39 

CHAPTER IT. 
Media and Persia, 44 

• Section 1. Origin of the Medes and Persians: Early Government; Con- 
quest and Empire of Cyrus (559-529 B.C.) Sec. 2. Cambyses (529-522 
B.C.) ; Smerdis (522-521 B.C.) ; Darius I. (521-500 B.C.) ; Institutions and 
Customs of the Medes and Persians. 

CHAPTER Y. 
Phoenicia and Carthage, 50 

Section 1. Sidon and Tyre. Sec. 2. Carthage. 

CHAPTER YI. 
Greece, 55 

Section 1. Primitive Greece. Sec. 2. Median Wars (500-449 B.C.) Sec. 3. 
Pericles; Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.) 



10 Contents. 

chapter VII. 

PAGE 

Macedonia : Empire of Alexander the Great, 73 

Section 1. Philip (360-337 B.C.) Sec. 2. Alexander the Great (326-323 
B.C.) Sec. 3. Dismemberment of Alexander's Empire. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

States formed out of Alexander's Empire, 79 

Section!. Egypt tinder the Lagi (323-30 B.C.) Sec. 2. Syria under the 
Seleucidee (301-64 B.C.) Sec. 3. Kingdom of Macedonia (319-148 B.C.) 
and Greece (301-146 b.c.) 



ROMAN HISTORY. 

THE MONARCHY. 

CHAPTER I. 

Foundation of Rome, 91 

Section 1. Romulus and his first Three Successors (753-616 B.C.) Sec. 2. 
The last Three Kings (616-509 B.C.) 

TEE BE PUBLIC. 

CHAPTER I. 

Feuds and Conquests in Italy (509-264 B.C.), 97 

Section 1. The Consulate (509 B.C.) ; the Dictatorship (498 B.C.) ; the Tri- 
bunes of the People (493 B.C.) Sec. 2. The Decemviri (450-449 B.C.) ; 
the Censorship (444 b.c) ; Military Tribunes ; Wars with the Veientes 
and the Gauls. Sec. 3. Political Equality of Patricians and Plebeians ; 
Local and Foreign Wars. 

CHAPTER II. 

War against Carthage and her Allies, 105 

Section 1. First Punic War (264-241 B.C.) Sec. 2. Second Punic War; 
Hannibal. Sec. 3. Third Punic War (149-146 B.C.) 

CHAPTER III. 

Civil Wars and Last Conquests (133-29 B.C.), 115 

Section 1. The Gracchi ; Jugurtha ; Maritts. Sec. 2. Wars against Mithri- 
dates (88-63 B.C.); Sulla; Spartacus; Catiline. Sec. 3. The First Tri- 
umvirate (60 B.C.) ; Ceesar and Pompey (48 B.C.) ; Antony and Octavius. 

CHAPTER IV. 
Institutions, Manners, and Customs of the Romans, 128 



Contents. ' 11 

the empire. 
chapter i. 

PAGE 

The Principate (29 b.c-284 a.d.), 132 

Section 1. The Family of Augustus (29 b.c-68 a.d.) ; Birth of Christian- 
ity ; First Persecution, under Nero. Sec. 2. The three Military Usur- 
pers (68-69 a.d.) ; the three Princes of the Flavian Family (69-96 a.d.) ; 
the Catacombs. Sec. 3. The Antonines (96-192 a.d.) ; the Preetorian 
Emperors (192-193 a.d.) Sec. 4. The Syrian Princes (193-235 a.d.) . 
Military' Anarchy (235-268 a.d.) ; the lllyrian Princes (268-284 a.d.) 

CHAPTER II. 

The Monarchical (284-312 a.d,) and Christian Empire (313-395 a.d.), . . 151 
Section 1. Diocletian (284-305 a.d.) ; Constantine the Great (306-337 a.d.) ; 
Edict of Milan (a.d. 313). Sec. 2. The three Sons of Constantine : Con- 
stantius (337-361 a.d.), Constans (337-350 a.d.), and Constantine II. 
(337-340 a.d.) 



HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 



FIRST EPOCH. 

CHAPTER I. 

The Barbaric Invasions and Fall of the "Western Empire (395-476), . . 161 
Section 1. Honorius (395-423) ; Alaric and Radagasius. Sec. 2. Yalentin- 
ianTIL (424-455); Genserie and Attila; the Yandals in Africa (429). 
Sec. 3. The last Emperors and the Confederates. 

CHAPTER II. 

Gaul — The Merovingian Franks, 169 

Section 1. Clovis L- and his Conquests (481-511). Sec. 2. Wars and Con- 
quests of Clovis' Successors till the Death of Dagobert I. (511-638). 

CHAPTER 111. 
Great Britain — The. Anglo-Saxons, . . . _ . ,' . . . 174 

CHAPTER IT. 
Spain — The Yisigoths, 176 



12 Contents. 

chapter Y. 

PAGE 

Italy and the Eastern Empire, 177 

Section 1. Italy under the Heruli. Sec. 2. The Ostrogoths ; Theodoric 
the Great and his Successors. Sec. 3. The Eastern Empire after Theo- 
dosius ; Reign of Justinian (527-565). Sec. 4. The Lombards in Italy 
(568-774). 

CHAPTER YI. 

The Church and the Barbarians, 185 

Section 1. The Church and the Early Heresies. Sec. 2. Conversion of the 
Barbarians. 



SECOND EPOCH. 

CHAPTER I. 

The Carlovingians, 190 

Section 1. The " Sluggard " Kings and the Mayors of the Palace (638-752). 
Sec. 2. Pepin the Short (752-768) ; Charlemagne (768-814). 

CHAPTER II. 

Mohammedanism — The Arab Empire, 197 

Section 1. Mohammed (570-635). Sec. 2. The Elective Caliphate (632-661). 
Sec. 3. The Ommiades at Damascus (661-750). Sec. 4. The Abbassides. 
Sec. 5. Arabian Civilization. 

CHAPTER III. 

The Eastern Empire in the Seventh and Eighth Centuries, . . . .208 
Section 1. The Heraclian Djmasty and Monothelism. Sec. 2. The 
Iconoclastic Isaurian Emperors. 

CHAPTER IT. 

The Church and Christian Civilization 212 

Section 1 . Influence of the Pope and the Bishops. Sec. 2. The Monks of 
the West. 



TRIED EPOCH. 

CHAPTER I. 

The Carlovingian Empire and the Feudal System 216 

Section 1. The two Dismemberments of the Carlovingian Empire (843 and 
888). Sec. 2. Feudalism in Europe. Sec. 3. The last Carlovingians 
(888-987) and the first three Capetian Kings (987-1060). 



Contents, 13 

chaptee ii. 

PAGE 

The Invasions of the Ninth and Tenth Centuries, . . . . . 224 

Section 1. Invasions of the Saracens and Hungarians. Sec. 2. The Nor- 
man Invasions. 

CHAPTER III. 

Germany and Italy, 234 

Section 1. The Germanic Kingdom and the Northern Paces (888-962). 
Sec. 2. Italy and the "Western Empire (888-962). Sec. 3. The German 
Emperors of the West (962). Sec. 4. Cis-Juran and Trans-Juran Bur- 
gundy. 

CHAPTEE IV. 

Spain, the Arabs, and the Greeks, ....,,... 243 
Section 1. Struggle between the Arabs and Spanish Christians. Sec. 2. 
The Greek Empire. 

CHAPTEE Y. 

The Church and Feudalism, 248 

Section 1. The Catholic Hierarchy in and about the Tenth Century. 
Sec. 2. Conversion of the Scandinavians ; St. Anscarius. Sec. 3. Con- 
version of the Slavs. 



FOUBTH EPOCH. 

CHAPTEE I. 

The Popes and the Empire (1073-1250), . 254 

Section 1. Investitures. Sec. 2. The Popes and the Hohenstaufens 
(1137-1272). 

CHAPTEE II. 

The Crusades in the East, 272 

Section 1. First Crusade (1095-1099). Sec. 2. The Children's Crusade 
(1212) ; Fifth Crusade (1217-1221). Sec. 3. The Two Crusades of St. 
Louis. 

CHAPTEE III. 

The Crusades in Europe, 283 

Section 1. Crusades against the Moors in Spain. Sec. 2. Crusade against 
the Albigenses (1208-1229). Sec. 3. Crusades against the Pagans of 
the Baltic (1204-1237). 



14 Contents. 

chapter IV. 

PAGE 

France, England, and Ireland, 290 

Section 1. Progress of Royalty in France ; Philip I. (1060-1108). Sec. 2. 
England. Sec. 3. Ireland. Sec. 4. Struggles in England; Magna 
Charta. 

CHAPTER Y. 

The Scandinavians, Slavs, and Mongols, 304 

Section 1. Scandinavian Kingdoms. Sec. 2. The Slavonian Tribes. Sec. 
3. The Mongols and the Empire of Jenghis Khan. 

CHAPTER TI. 

The Two great Centuries of the Middle Ages, 312 

Section 1. Zenith of the Papacy and the Church. Sec. 2. Theological 
Sciences, National Languages, Christian Art. 



FIFTH EPOCH. 

CHAPTER I. 

The Great Schism of the West, . 318 

Section 1, Boniface Till, and Philip the Fair. Sec. 2. The Great Schism 
(1378-1417). 

CHAPTER II. 

France and England — The Hundred Tears' War, 327 

Section 1. The Last Capets. Sec. 2. Anarchy in England and France. 

CHAPTER III. 

Germany, Switzerland, and Italy, 337 

Section 1. Germany. Sec. 2. Switzerland and Italy. Sec. 3. Italy: 
Struggle of the Guelphs and Ghibelines. 

CHAPTER IT. 
Spain — The Five Kingdoms, 347 

CHAPTER T. 

Scandinavia and the Slavic Countries, ..... • 351 

Section 1. The Three Scandinavian Kingdoms. Sec. 2. The Enslaved Slavs. 



Contexts. 15 

chapter yi. 

PAGE 

The Greek Empire and the Ottoman Turks, 356 

Section 1. Turkish Conquests to the Battle of Angora (1299-1402). Sec. 
2. The Mongol Empire. Sec. 3. The Ottoman Turks to the Taking of 
Constantinople. 



MODERN HISTORY. 

FIRST EPOCH. 

CHAPTER I. 

Struggle with the Turks, . . 363 

Section 1. Mohammed II. (1451-1481). Sec. 2. The Renaissance in Italy. 



CHAPTER II. 

The Decline of Feudalism, 366 

Section 1. France: Louis XI. (1461-1483); Charles Vni. (1483-1498). 
Sec. 2. England: Wars of the Roses (1455-1485). Sec. 3. Spain: Fer- 
dinand the Catholic (1479-1516) and Isabella (1474-1504). Sec. 4. Mari- 
time Discoveries and Conquests of the Spaniards. Sec. 5. Portugal : 
Maritime Discoveries and Conquests. Sec. 6. Germany: Frederick 
HI. (1440-1493) and Maximilian I. (1493-1519). 



CHAPTER III. 

The Italian "Wars of the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries, .... 386 
Section 1. Charles VIII. in Italy (1494-1495). Sec. 2. Francis I. (1513- 
1547). 



SECOND EPOCH. 

CHAPTER I. 

The Protestant Reformation, 390 

Section!. Germany: Luther (1483-1546). Sec. 2. Scandinavian Nations. 
Sec. 3. Switzerland and France. Sec. 4. Protestantism in England. 
Sec. 5. True Reform ; the Council of Trent (1545-1563). 



1 6 Contents. 

chapter ii. 

PAGE 

Rivalry of France and Austria, 404 

Section 1. Francis I. and Charles Y. (1519-1547). Sec. 2. Henry II. 
(1547-1559). Sec. 3. The Ottoman Turks ; Soliman II. (1520-1566). 

CHAPTER III. 
Religious Wars in France, 411 

Section 1. Francis II. (1559-1560). Sec. 2. Regency of Catherine de' 
Medici. Sec. 3. Henry III. (1574-1589). Sec. 4. Henry IY. (1589-1610). 

CHAPTER IY. 

Philip II. and Elizabeth, 418 

Section 1. Philip II. (1556-1598). Sec. 2. Elizabeth (1558-1603). Sec. 
3. Mary Stuart. 

CHAPTER Y. 

Louis XIII. (1610-1643)— Thirty Years' War, 428 

Section 1. Concini, De Luynes, and Richelieu. Sec. 2. Ministry of Riche- 
lieu (1624-1642). Sec. 3. The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). Sec. 4. 
The Swedish Period (1630-1635). Sec. 5. The French Period under 
Louis XIII. (1635-1643). 

THIRD EPOCH. 

CHAPTER I. 

Louis XIY. and Mazarin (1643-1661), 437 

Section 1. Regency of Anne of Austria (1643-1651). Sec. 2. The Fronde 
(1 648-1652) ; Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659). Sec. 3. England: James 
I. (1603-1625) ; Charles I. (1625-1649) ; the Commonwealth (1649-1660); 
the Protectorate (1653-1658). 

CHAPTER II. 

First Wars and Conquests of Louis XIY. (1661-1668), 446 

Section 1. Personal Government of Louis XIY. Sec. 2. War of Spolia- 
tion (1667). Sec. 3. Second War of Spoliation (1672-1678). Sec. 4. 
Declaration of 1682 ; Jansenism ; Revocation of the Edict of Nantes 
(1685). Sec. 5. Revolution of 1688 in England ; Charles II. (1660-1685) ; 
James II. (1685-1688); William III. (1689-1702). 

CHAPTER III. 
Ireland, 453 

Section 1. English Invasion of Ireland. Sec. 2. Ireland and the Tudors- 
(1509-1603). Sec. 3. Ireland and the Stuarts (1603-1649). Sec. 4. Crom- 
well in Ireland. Sec. 5. William and Mary (1689-1702). 



Contents. 17 

chapter it. 

PAGE 

Louis XIY. after the League of Augsburg (1688-1715), . . . .459 
Section 1. War of the League of Augsburg (1688-1697). Sec. 2. "War of 
the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). 

CHAPTER V. 

Europe in the Time of Louis XIY., 462 

Section 1. Sweden and the North; Charles XII. (1697-1718). Sec. 2. 
Russia: Peter the Great (1682-1725). Sec. 3. Humiliation of Turkey. 



FOURTH EPOCH. 

CHAPTER I. 

Louis XY. (1715-1774), 469 

Section 1. The Regency (1715-1723) and Ministry of the Duke de Bour- 
bon (1723-1726). Sec. 2. Ministry of Cardinal Fleury (1726-1743). 
Sec. 3. The American Colonies. Sec. 4. England : Queen Anne (1702- 
1714) ; the House of Hanover. Sec. 5. The Seven Years' War (1756- 
1763) 

CHAPTER II. 

The Two Revolutions, • 484 

Section 1. The -American Revolution (1775-1783). Sec. 2. Louis XYI. 
and the French Revolution (1774-1789). Sec. 3. Louis XYI. and the 
Legislative Assembly (1791-1792) 



CHAPTER III. 

Europe in the Eighteenth Century, 493 

Section 1. Joseph II. of Austria (1780-1790). Sec. 2. Rise of Prussia 
under Frederick II. Sec. 3. Russia under Catherine II. (1762-1796). 
Sec. 4. Events in Portugal, Spain, and Italy. 



FIFTH EPOCH 

CHAPTER I. 

The first French Republic, 500 

Section 1. The Convention after the Execution ot Louis XYI. (1793- 
1795). Sec. 2. The Reign of Terror. Sec. 3. The Directory (1795- 
1799). Sec. 4. The Consulate (1799-1804). 



18 Contexts. 

chapter ii. 

PAGE 

The Empire (1804-1815), 518 

Section 1. The Empire to the Treaty of Tilsit (1804-1807). Sec. 2. The 
Empire in its Zenith (1807-1812). Sec. 3. Decadence and Fall of the 
Empire (1812-1814). Sec. 4. Great Britain and Ireland. Sec. 5. The | 
American Union. 

SIXTH EPOCH. 

CHAPTER I. 

The State of France, . . . • 543 

Section 1. France after the Fall of Napoleon. Sec. 2. The Revolution of 
1830. 

CHAPTER II. 

Catholic Emancipation and Reform in Great Britain and Ireland, . . . 546 
Section. 1. George IT. (1820-1830). Sec. 2. The Political Struggle in 
Great Britain. 

CHAPTER m. 

Reform on the Continent of Europe, 548 

Section 1. Popular Discontent. Sec. 2. Growing Rivalry between Aus- 
tria and Prussia. 

CHAPTER IV. 
The Eastern Question 551 

CHAPTER V. 

Progress of Events in the United States (1816-1848), 552 

Section 1. The Question of Slavery. Sec. 2. War with Mexico. 



SEVEXTH EPOCH. 

CHAPTER I. 

The Revolution of 1848, 556 

Sec. 1. The Revolution in France (1848). Sec. 2. Revolt in Prussia and 
Central Germany. Sec. 3. Revolt in Austria. Sec. 4. The Revolution 
in Italy. Sec. 5. Reforms in Great Britain and Ireland. 

CHAPTER II. 

Russia and the Eastern Question, 560 

Section 1. The Crimean War (1854-1856). Sec. 2. Russian Advance in 
Asia. 



Contents. 19 

chapter iii. 

PAGE 

Concentration of the Great Powers, 562 

Section 1. Downfall of the French Republic. Sec. 2. Movements in Italy. 
Sec. 3. Prussian Development. Sec. 4. "War between France and Ger- 
many (1870-1871). 

CHAPTER IT. 

Russia after the Crimean War, 570 

Section 1. Reforms of Alexander II. Sec. 2. Russian Schemes of Aggran- 
dizement. Sec. 3. War between Russia and Turkey (1876-1877). Sec. 
4. The new German Empire. Sec. 5. Austro-Hungary (1867-1881). 

CHAPTER Y. 

Recent Events in Italy, France, Spain, and the minor States of Europe, . 577 
Section 1. Italian Unification. Sec. 2. The new French Republic. Sec. 
3. Spain (1868-1881). Sec. 4. Minor States of Europe. 

CHAPTER YI. 

The British Empire (1848-1881), 584 

Section 1. The Indian Mutiny. Sec. 2. Irish Disturbances (1854-1880). 

CHAPTER YII. 
The United States since the Mexican "War 590 

CHAPTER Till. 

The American Continent, 596 

Section 1. Canada. Sec. 2. Mexico. Sec. 3. Brazil. Sec. 4. Other States 
of Central and South America. 



History of the World. 



ANCIENT HISTOET. 



CHAPTER I. 

E&YPT. 

The history of Egypt, frora the formation of the empire to its subjugation 
by the Persians, divides itself into three periods: 1. The Ancient Empire, which 
was marked by the building of the Pyramids ; and the Middle Empire, which 
was destroyed by the invasion of the Hyksos, or Shepherd-kings. 2. The New 
Empire, founded by the kings of the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties. 
3. The decline of the New Empire, from the end of the fourteenth century b.c. 
to the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, King of the Persians, B.C. 525. There 
were twenty-six dynasties in all. 

SECTION I. Ancient Empire. 
1. Memphis. — After the dispersion of mankind Misraim, 
son of Cham, peopled Egypt, which was called the land of 
Misraim and stretched along the fertile banks of the river 
Nile. But the founder of the Egyptian monarchy was 
Menes, a descendant of Misraim. Menes was the first to 
check the waters of the Nile, on whose annual overflow the 
land depends for its fruitfulness, there being little rain in 
Egypt. He dug a new bed for the river, whose waters 
wasted themselves on the Libyan sands. On the left bank, 
near the delta of the Nile, he built a city which he named 
Memphis, or "the good residence." This was Egypt's first 
capital. 

State divisions of history of Egypt. How many dynasties were there ? 1 . Where 
does Egypt lie 1 Who founded the Egyptian monarchy 1 For what is he famous 1 
What was Egypt's first capital ? 

21 



22 History of the World. [ b .c. 3064 

2. The Pyramids. — The people grew in numbers and in 
wealth, and Egypt in time extended from the Libyan deserts 
to Mount Sinai and became a great power. Evidences of 
this power and of the wealth and resources of the country, 
as well as of the genius of her rulers, remain to this day. 
The construction of the Pyramids, which have withstood 
all the tests of time, proclaims a wouderf ul people. These 
were vast symmetrical monuments, unequalled for size and 
completeness of structure, which were intended to be the 
last resting-place of the kings. The largest of them is 
attributed to Cheops, a king of the fourth dynasty. 

J3. Lake Moeris. — Egypt depended for its crops and har- 
vests on the overflow of the Nile. But to render the 
country fertile the overflow had only to reach a certain 
height. Above or below this was equally disastrous. To 
secure this level King Moeris had a deep lake dug about ten 
leagues in circumference. This served as a reservoir which 
received the Avaters of the river when they rose too high, and 
replenished them when they fell too low. The lake fisheries 
became a source of revenue, and on the shores were built 
palaces and pleasure-houses. 

4. End of the Ancient Empire. — King Moeris was a great 
monarch, and the records that remain testify to the splendor 
of his reign. He was equally successful in commerce and in 
war. The power of his arms extended to Ethiopia, while 
he established trade with Asia by the Eed Sea. Eecords 
attest a high degree of civilization and luxury among the 
Egyptians at this time. But luxury and riches brought 
their curse. So rich a prize as Egypt became an object of 
ambition. Eival competitors for the throne sprang up in 
the sixth dynasty. 

5. The last of the kings of this dynasty was slain by an 

2. Wliat were the Pyramids ? 3. On what did Egypt depend for its harvests ? 
Why was Lake Mosris constructed ? 4. How far did King Mceris' power extend ? 
Why did ancient Egypt decline 1 



b.c. 3064-2214] Egypt. 23 

assassin. His sister, Nitocris, famed for her wisdom and 
her beauty, assumed the government and held it for twelve 
years, during which time she completed the third great 
Pyramid. Her reign was beneficent, but ended disastrously. 
She treacherously put to death the men implicated in the 
death of her brother. Their partisans revolted, and Nito- 
cris perished in the revolt. 

6. Thebes. — Anarchy ensued, and in the midst of it one 
of the contending princes founded Thebes and made it the 
capital of Upper Egypt, or the Thebaic!. In the eleventh 
dynasty the king of Thebes established his sway over all the 
country, and Tiiebes then became the capital of Egypt. It 
was made one of the most magnificent cities that the world 
has known, and its hundred gates have been celebrated by 
Homer. At Thebes, it is believed, the true God was wor- 
shipped under the name of Amnion, or " the Invisible." He 
was adored as the " Lord of eternity," the "great God 
dwelling in truth," and Thebes was "the holy city of 
Amnion." But the holy city soon gave itself up to cor- 
ruption and the pagan worship of the stars and of ani- 
mals, and so became the centre of idolatry, 

7. Egypt under the Middle Empire. — With the twelfth 
dynasty Egypt recovered all the territory and power it had 
lost during the civil wars. New conquests were added in 
Ethiopia, and the masterpieces of Egyptian art were pro- 
duced during the prosperous reigns of these princes. The 
most famous is known as the Labyrinth, founded by King 
Amenehme III. This structure was a series of twelve mag- 
nificent palaces, each distinct in itself yet communicating 
with the others. 

8. The Hyksos. — Wealth and luxury begot corruption, and 
corruption begOt dissension. Egypt was again given up to 

5. Who was Nitoeris ? What was her end? 6. Give origin of foundation of 
Thebes. What was the worship at Thebes'? 7. For what is the twelfth dynasty 
famed ? What was the Labyrinth '? 



24 History of the World. [b.c. 2214-1700 

civil strife and the state dismembered. Under the thir- 
teenth dynasty it was invaded by the Hyksos, hardy shep- 
herd chieftains from Syria and the neighboring states. These 
nomads poured into the country, defeated the reigning 
princes, destroyed cities, overthrew temples and gods, and 
wrought all the evil accompanying a barbaric invasion. 
They then seized the country for themselves, and remained 
masters of it for about three centuries. They inhabited 
the lower valley of the Nile and levied tribute from the rest 
of the country. Their last king, Apophis, raised Joseph to 
the position of his chief minister of state. 

SECTION II. New Empire: Kings of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth 
Dynasties ; Thoutmosis III. and Ramses II. 

9. Expulsion of the Hyksos. — About the year 1700 B.C. 
Amosis, King of Thebes, expelled the Hyksos and became 
the head of the eighteenth dynasty and founder of a new 
empire. The Hyksos migrated to Arabia, Phoenicia, and 
the country afterwards known as Palestine. King Thout- 
mosis I. laid Syria under tribute, subjugated Ethiopia, and 
extended his conquests to Mesopotamia. 

10. Thoutmosis III. — His second son, Thoutmosis III., 
became the greatest of Egyptian conquerors. A minor on 
ascending the throne, the country was wisely governed by 
his eldest sister, Hatason. At her death the Syrians and 
Chanaanites revolted, but were defeated by Thoutmosis 
at Mageddo, in Palestine. Thence the young conqueror 
marched into the interior of Asia and laid tribute on the 
kings of Mnive and Babylon. Armenia and Arabia fell 
under the yoke ; and his vessels, manned by Phoenicians, 
conquered the coasts of Asia Minor and Greece, the isles of 
Cyprus and Crete, and opened the way for the acquisition 

8. Who were the Hyksos and what did they accomplish 1 How long did 
they remain masters of Egypt ? What of their last king ? 9. By whom were the 
Hyksos expelled 1 10. Give history of Thoutmosis in. 



b.c. 1700-1288] Egypt. 25 

of the African coast to Algeria. Thus Egypt became mis- 
tress of the world as then known. 

11. Amenophis III, Hamses II. — This vast empire lasted 
till the reign of Amenophis III., the third successor of the 
great Thoutmosis. Amenophis was more celebrated for the 
number and magnificence of the monuments he had erected 
than for military exploits. After him the power of Egypt 
waned, but was revived under Eamses, the head of the nine- 
teenth dynasty. Sethos, his son, regained all the conquests 
of Thoutmosis III. But the glory of the father was eclipsed 
by that of the son, Ramses II., celebrated in history as 
Sesostris. 

12. Sesostris. — Sesostris secured the conquests of his pre- 
decessors. His title to fame rests chiefly on the number 
and magnificence of the monuments he caused to be erect- 
ed in the valley of the Nile. In this he surpassed all the 
Pharaos. The city of Thebes was especially enriched by 
him. 

13. According to the Greek writers he was a great law- 
giver as well as a great conqueror. But the best laws of 
Egypt came before his time. Notwithstanding his magni- 
ficence, he seems to have been a harsh ruler and full of vain- 
glory. He is set down as that Pharao of the Bible who was 
so cruel to the Jews in their captivity. He reigned for 
sixty-five years. 

14. End of the Nineteenth Dynasty. — At his death Sesos- 
tris left Egypt exhausted by his tyrannical exactions. The 
country was invaded on all sides. The Italians and Greeks 
entered Lower Egypt and ascended the Nile. Merenphtah, 
the son of Sesostris, fled before them ; but the invasion was 
finally repulsed. Merenphtah collected at Pelusium "all 
the lepers and impure" of his kingdom to the number of 

11. For what was Amenophis III. famed ? For what Ramses I. and Sethos ? 
12-13. On what does the fame of Sesostris rest? 14. What occurred after the 
death of Sesostris ? 



26 History of the World. [ b .c. 1288-725 

80,000. They took up arms and were reinforced by hordes 
from Asia. War raged in Egypt for thirteen years, during 
which Merenphtah disappeared. His son came back from 
Ethiopia, where he had been a fugitive, and, assuming the 
title of Sethos II., claimed his inheritance. In the struggle 
for the throne the nineteenth dynasty ended miserably. It 
was the first chief persecutor of the Jewish people. 

SECTION III. Decline of the New Empire: Ethiopian Kings (725-665 B.C). 
and Saite Kings (665-525 B.C.) ; Conquest of Egypt by Cainbyses 
(525 B.C.) 

15. As the twentieth dynasty neared its close the valor of 
Eamses III. restored much of its glory and power to Egypt. 
He conquered the Libyans and Syrians, but his successors 
were not equal to their inheritance. The high-priest of 
Amnion usurped the chief military and civil authority, and 
about 1150 B.C. assumed the title of king. There was a 
rival dynasty at Tan is, in Lower Egypt. The high-priest 
sought the alliance of the Assyrian kings and to secure that 
renounced the right of sovereignty that for five centuries 
Egypt had exercised in Asia. 

16. This weakening of Egypt allowed King David to en- 
large his kingdom by conquest over the adjacent smaller 
states. Solomon became Pharao's son-in-law. The schism 
of the ten tribes divided the kingdom of Israel. The Pha- 
raos of Lower Egypt drove the descendants of the high- 
priest into Ethiopia. Jeroboam invited Sesac, master of all 
Egypt, to invade Juda (971). He entered Jerusalem and 
despoiled the Temple and the palace of Eoboam. 

17. The Ethiopian Kings and the Assyrian Invasion (725- 
665). — The high -priest's descendants established an inde- 
pendent kingdom in Ethiopia. One of them, Zara, invaded 
Egypt and Juda, but was defeated. Anarchy still prevailed 

15. What did Ramses III. achieve 1 State what occurred after his death. 
16. What connection was there between Egypt and Israel 1 17. How did the 
early invasions of Egypt come about ? 



b.c. 725-600] Egypt. 27 

in Egypt, and Sabacon, another Ethiopian, again invaded the 
country and subdued almost the whole of it. The Jews, 
threatened by the Assyrians, in spite of the warnings of the 
prophet Isaias, sought the alliance of the Egyptians. It was 
given, but did not prevent the ruin of the kingdom of Israel, 
/iior the invasion of Egypt itself. 

18. The Twelve Kings (665-650).— After a long period 
of anarchy twelve of the Egyptian chieftains agreed to reign 
in common. Their union lasted fifteen years. One of them, 
Psammeticus, was deposed. He fled, but, gaining the as- 
sistance of the Greeks, returned and deposed the others. 
He drove the Ethiopians from the Thebaic!, became master 
of Egypt, and named his dynasty Sai's after his father. He 
was a powerful warrior, but a preference for his Greek 
allies gave such dissatisfaction to his own subjects that a 
large number of them emigrated to Ethiopia. His reign is 
rendered memorable by the siege of Azoth, a city of the Phil- 
istines, which it took him twenty-eight years to capture. 

19. Hechao (616-600).— Nechao followed the warlike pol- 
icy of his father. Josias, King of Jucla, objected to the 
Egyptians passing his frontiers, and, rejecting the offer of 
friendship, gave battle at Mageddo, but was defeated and 
slain (610). Nechao took Jerusalem and laid tribute on 
Jucla. He conquered Syria and advanced to the Euphrates, 
where he was met by ISTabuchoclonosor at Circesium, and 
in a single day lost all his conquests (604). He had striven 
unsuccessfully to increase Egyptian commerce by reopening 
the canal made by his father between the Nile and the Eed 
Sea. The work cost the lives of one hundred and twenty 
thousand workmen, and was finally abandoned. 

20. Psammis (600-594) and Apries (594-569) ; Usurpa- 
tion of Amasis (569-526). — ISTechao was succeeded by his 

18. Give history of the twelve kings and of Psammeticus. What famous 
siege occurred during the reign of Psammeticus 1 19. Give history of ISTechao. 
What famous project did he attempt ? 



28 History of the World. [ b .c. 600-525 

son Psammis, who, after an unsuccessful expedition into 
Ethiopia, left the crown to Apries, called Ophra in the 
Bible. Apries seized the city of Sidon, and foolishly defied 
Heaven to shake his throne. To avenge his grandfather's 
defeat at Circesinm he offered the Jews his protection 
against JSTabuchodonosor. Sedecias, the last king of Juda, 
accepted the offer. They were defeated, and the Babylo- 
nian enemy spent their fury on Sedecias and the city of 
Jerusalem (587). 

21. Pharao, whose death had been predicted by the pro- 
phet Jeremias, fell a victim to a revolt of his own troops. 
Amasis, an officer of low birth, was chosen king by the 
rebels. He was a man of power and capacity, and became 
a wise ruler of the people. The favor he showed to the 
Greeks awoke the jealousy of the Egyptians, and an alliance 
he made with the enemies of Cyrus proved disastrous to 
his son. 

22. Psammenitus (526-525) ; Conquest of Egypt by Cam- 
byses (525). — Oambyses, son of Cyrus, invaded Egypt un- 
der pretence of this alliance with the enemies of the Per- 
sians. He defeated Psammenitus under the walls of Pelu- 
sium. The king fled to Memphis, but was made prisoner 
and put to death. Thus ended the most ancient and flour- 
ishing empire in the world. 

SECTION IV. Religion, Government, Laws, Science, etc., of the Egyptians. 

23. Keligion of the Egyptians. — The Egyptians, being so 
near the cradle of the human race, shared in the primitive 
revelation and had a knowledge of the true God. With the 
gradual corruption of morals this knowledge became more 
and more confused and corrupt, and finally degenerated into 
idolatry. The sun was adored as the supreme being, and 

20. What happened on the death of Nechao 1 21. Who was Amasis 1 22. 
Who was Cambyses ? How did the Egyptian Empire end 1 23. What was the 
religion of the Egyptians ? 



Egypt, 29 

the animals peculiar to the country were also worshipped 
as gods. The crocodile was sacred, and the bull Apis was 
especially honored and had magnificent temples erected to 
him. The Egyptians believed in the immortality of the 
soul ; but this belief changed afterwards into the doctrine 
of metempsychosis, or the transmigration of the soul from 
one body into some other body after death. They reve- 
renced the dead and embalmed their bodies. The bodies 
thus embalmed are called mummies. 

24. The Government of Egypt. — The chief ruler was a 
king, who called himself the son of the sun, and who was 
worshipped as a god by his subjects, but who himself was 
compelled to observe rigorously the religious laws of the 
country. At his death the crown passed to the eldest of his 
sons, or, failing them, of his daughters, or, children failing, 
to his brothers and sisters. He was surrounded by a royal 
court- . The country was divided into districts presided over 
by governors appointed by the king. The use of money 
was unknown ; taxes were paid in kind, and commerce was 
carried on by exchange, or by ingots according to their 
weight. 

25. The People. — In Egypt were two privileged classes, 
the priests and the warriors, each possessing a third of the 
soil. The third class consisted of the people, agriculturists 
or shepherds for the most part. There were also many 
skilled artisans — builders, weavers, and workers in the fine 
metals. The classes or castes were hereditary and could not 
be interchanged. What the father was the son was, soldier, 
priest, or shepherd. The priests were also the literary class, 
the men of science and of medicine. The priests, as was 
seen, grew to be so powerful as to overthrow the twentieth 
dynasty. The warriors lost their hold when two hundred 

What did the Egyptians believe regarding the soul? 24. How was Egypt 
governed 1 25. Describe the various castes. What were the special offices of the 
priesthood 1 What led to the decline of the warrior caste ? 



30 History of the World, 

thousand of them revolted from Psammeticus and retired 
into Ethiopia. 

26. Laws, Science, and Arts. — The laws of Egypt were de- 
vised with great wisdom, being founded chiefly on natural 
right and justice. The judges were chosen from the sacer- 
dotal families. Truth was held in the highest veneration 
by all classes, and the punishment of perjury was death. 
The affairs of justice were transacted in writing, lest elo- 
quence should sway the judgment. The Eg}^ptians were 
eminent in natural science. They were great astronomers 
and geometricians ; yet the machinery used in the con- 
struction of their vast monuments and buildings was of 
the simplest kind — the lever, the inclined plane, and the 
human arm. 

27. Even from the earliest times their paintings and carv- 
ings showed wonderful delicacy and truth to nature. But 
the chief character of their art was the gigantic and ma- 
jestic proportions of their statues and monuments. Their 
religion being symbolic, they cared little for mere form. 
Their writing was in hieroglyphic or sacred characters, with 
which their monuments are covered. The key to these in- 
scriptions Avas lost, and through the ages they remained a 
mystery, until in 1822 J. F. Champollion, a French sava7it, 
hit upon it and revealed their secret to the world. There 
was also a cursive writing in use, called hieratic, which 
was an abbreviation of the hieroglyphic. It was written 
on the inner bark of the papyrus plant, whence the name 
of paper. 

26. Describe the laws of Egypt. From what class were the judges chosen? 
For what were the Egyptians famous ? 27. What was their manner of writing ? 
Who discovered the secret of the hieroglyphs ? 



b.c. 1314] Assyria and Babylon. 31 

OHAPTEE II. 
ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. 

The history of Assyria and Babylon comprises two periods : the first from 
the foundation of Babylon and Ninive to the ruin of Ninive and the second As- 
syrian Empire (625 b.c.) ; the second from the Babylonian or Chaldean Empire 
to the taking of Babylon by Cyrus (625-538 B.C.) 

SECTION I. Babylon and Ninive: First Assyrian Empire (1314-789 B.C.); 
Second Assyrian Empire (744-625 B.C.) 

1. Babylon and Ninive. — Babylon was founded by Nimrod, 
grandson of Cham, at the foot of the Tower of Babel, on the 
left bank of the river Euphrates. Nimrod was a mighty 
hunter and warrior. He had a rival in Assur, son of Sem, 
who built Ninive on the left bank of the Tigris. These 
cities were at first the capitals of two small, independent 
kingdoms, occupying the fertile basin between the two riv- 
ers. The country round about was probably divided up 
among a number of rival states constantly at war. Ninive 
became the ruler of Babylon, and Babylon in turn the 
ruler of Ninive, until finally the Chaldeans assumed sway 
over both, as well as over other cities bordering the Tigris 
and Euphrates. The Chaldean Empire lasted until the 
seventeenth century B.C., when it fell under the power of 
the Pharaos. 

2. First Assyrian Empire (1314). — Under the successors 
of Sesostris the Egyptian sway waned, and the kings of 
Ninive extended their conquests towards the Euphrates. 
One of their number, Tiglath-samdan, founded the first 
Assyrian or Ninivite Empire (1314). He allowed the kings 
of Babylon to rule, provided they paid tribute. The Assy- 
rian monarchs soon became independent of Egypt. Tig- 
How is the history of Assyria and Babylon divided ? 1. Where and by whom 

was Babylon founded? And Ninive? 2. Give history of Tiglath samdan and 
Tiglath-pileser. * 



02 History of the World. [ b .c. 930-789 

lath-pileser conquered the countries bordering on the Cas- 
pian and Euxine Seas, crossed the Euphrates, seized Circe- 
sium, and defeated the Hethians, who were of old enemies 
of Egypt. He aspired to the conquest of Western Asia, 
and succeeded in great measure ; but a revolt in Babylon 
stopped his victorious career and resulted in the loss of 
all his conquests. At this time David founded his king- 
dom of Israel. 

3. Sardanapalus III (930-905) ; Salmanasar IV. (905- 
870). — After a century and a half of internal discord 
power was restored to the Assyrian Empire. Sardana- 
palus III. recovered all the conquests of Tiglath-pileser. 
To them he added Media. He was a cruel tyrant, who glo- 
ried in his cruelty. His son, Salmanasar IV., attacked Is- 
rael. He made thirty-one campaigns, which rendered him 
master of a great part of Asia. His empire extended from 
Persia to the Euxine Sea, from Oxus to the country of the 
Philistines. He died besieged in his own capital by a revolt 
led by one of his sons. He was succeeded by his elder son, 
and then by his grandson, Belochus III., who married the 
famous Semiramis. She enriched Babylon and constructed 
the dikes which preserved the lower plains of Mesopotamia 
from the inundations of the Euphrates. 

4. Fall of the Assyrian Empire (789). — The accession of 
Sardanapalus V., a voluptuary, was the signal for renewed 
outbreaks in an empire that could only be kept in subjec- 
tion by a strong hand. Arbaces, governor of the Medes, 
joined by Phul, prince of Babylon, and other chiefs, rose 
in revolt. Worsted at first, they finally succeeded in shut- 
ting Sardanapalus up in JSTinive, a city deemed impregnable. 
The siege lasted two years, when an overflow of the Tigris 
overthrew a league of the walls and opened the way into the 

3. Who restored the Assyrian Empire 1 Describe Sardanapalus III. What 
of his son, Salmanasar IV. ? Whom did Semiramis many ? 4. What was the 
character of Sardanapalus Y. 1 How did Ninive fall 1 



BC. 744-718] Asstbia and Babylon. 33 

city. The end had been foretold in prophecy, and Sarda- 
napalus, recognizing the truth at last, had a vast funeral 
pyre erected in his palace, where, amid his wives and his 
treasures, he was consumed. The city was pillaged and 
given over to fire and sword. 

5. Second Assyrian Empire (744-727). — Phul, surnamed 
Belesis, or " The Terrible," made Assyria a dependency 
of Babylon. He made the king of Israel pay him tri- 
bute. The Assyrians revolted, and, after a long struggle, 
regained their independence. Then Tiglath-pileser II. , 
father of Sardanapalus V., fouuded the second Assyrian 
Empire (744). He reconquered most of the inheritance of 
his ancestors. Achaz, the impious King of Jucla, became 
his vassal, and gave over to him all the treasures of the 
Temple. Then the prophecies of Isaias and Amos were 
fulfilled : the kingdom of Damascus, or Syria, was de- 
stroyed ; half the kingdom of Israel was occupied by the 
conqueror, and the other half compelled to pay a heavy 
tribute. He transferred the ten tribes of Israel to the in- 
terior of his own empire and supplanted them by his own 
subjects. 

6. Salmanasar VI. (727-722); Sargon (721-704); Tak- 
ing of Samaria (718). — Osee, King of Israel, despite the 
warnings of Isaias the prophet, formed an alliance with 
Egypt against the Assyrians. Salmanasar besieged Sama- 
ria, but died during the siege. Sargon, his general, usurp- 
ed the crown, took Samaria, and sent the ten tribes captive 
to Assyria. Tobias, one of the exiles, gained the friend- 
ship of the king and used it to better their lot. A large 
number of strangers, transported from the shores of the 
Tigris to Samaria, mixed their pagan rites with the law of 
Moses and founded a new people, known as Samaritans. 

5. What did Phul accomplish 1 Who founded the second Assyrian Empire ? 
Describe. the relations of Tiglath-pileser with the Jews. What became of the 
ten tribes of Israel 1 6. For what is Sargon famous 1 Who were the Samaritans ? 



34 History of the World. [ b .c. 718-625 

7. Sargon extended his rule from the Mediterranean shore 
to Cyprus. He conquered Babylon (709) and revenged on 
that city the sack of Ninive. He subjugated Asia from 
Cilicia to the frontiers of India, and boasted that he had 
forced three hundred and fifty kings to aclore his god, Bel. 
He died by the hand of an assassin. 

8. Sennacherib (704-681). — What Sargon had done for Is- 
rael, his son, Sennacherib, undertook to do for Juda. King 
Ezechias, with the aid of the Philistines and Egyptians, op- 
posed him ; but the allies were defeated and Juda was de- 
vastated. Terms were offered, but, Sennacherib proving 
implacable, God himself, according to the testimony of 
Isaias, took up the cause of Juda, and in a night one hun- 
dred and eighty thousand of the Assyrians perished. Sen- 
nacherib fled, and was afterwards slain by two of his sons. 

9. Assar-Haddon (681-687) and Sardanapalus VI. (667- 
647). — The parricides fled to Armenia, and Assar-Haddon, 
the fourth son, ascended the throne. He took Sidon and 
Phoenicia and invaded Jnda, then ruled by the wicked and 
idolatrous Manasses. Man asses was taken prisoner in Jeru- 
salem and carried a captive to Babylon, but was afterwards 
restored on condition of his paying tribute. Assar-Haddon 
proved a successful but cruel conqueror, and added to his 
titles that of king of Egypt and Ethiopia. His son, Sar- 
danapalus VI., was equally cruel and terrible in war. But 
the empire had grown too vast for one man to hold. He 
extended his conquests to the southern coast of Asia Minor, 
but his reign was one struggle to maintain authority in his 
own empire. 

10. Assourdan ; Ruin of Kmive (625).— -Phraortes, pro- 
claimed king of Media, drove out the Assyrians and added 
Persia to his new kingdom. He was defeated and slain by 

7. How far did Sargohs sway extend 1 8. Give the stray of Sennacherib. 
9. Describe the growth of the kingdom of Ninive under Assar-Haddon and Sarda- 
napalus Yl, 10. Who was Phraortes and what did he do ? 



b.c. 625-587] Assyria and Babylon. 35 

Assourdan at Kagan (635). His son, Cyaxeres, took up the 
cause, and, repelling a Scythian invasion of Media, joined 
with JSTabopolassar, governor of Babylon, in besieging Ni- 
nive. The city was fifty miles in circuit, and had a 'popu- 
lation of about two millions. It was a great, a beautiful, 
and a strong city, with massive walls and fortifications. It 
fell, however, and Assourdan slew himself in despair. Ni- 
nive was reduced to ruins. 

SECTION II. Babylonian or Chaldean Empire (625-538 B.C.) 

11. Nabopolassar (625-604); Mabuchodonosor the Great 
(604-561). — After destroying JSTinive Nabopolassar founded 
the Babylonian or Chaldean Empire, which stretched from 
the Tigris to the Mediterranean. Nechao, King of Egypt, 
desiring to share in the spoils of the ruined empire, occu- 
pied the country of the Philistines and Syria (610). The 
king, now old, sent his son, JSTabuchodonosor, against the 
Egyptians. He defeated Nechao at Circesium, and was 
pursuing him into Egypt when the news of his father's 
death made him hasten back to Babylon. 

12. Ruin of the Kingdom of Juda (587). — The kingdom 
of Juda, set between the rival powers of Egypt and Baby- 
lon, was the prey of each in turn. It had paid tribute to 
Nechao. It had now to pay tribute to Nabuchodonosor. 
He threatened to besiege Jerusalem, and King Joachim was 
compelled to send him hostages from the noblest families. 
One of these was the prophet Daniel, at this time (602) quite 
a young man. Thus began the Babylonian captivity often 
foretold by Jeremias. 

13. A revolt of the people of Juda brought JSTabuchodono- 
sor to Jerusalem. He seized the treasures of the Temple 
and the palace, dethroned Jechonias, and carried him cap- 
How did Ninive fall? 11. Who founded the Chaldean Empire? 12. How- 
did the Babylonian captivity begin 1 13. Who carried it out and how ? What 
was the fate of Jerusalem 1 



36 History of the World. [ b .c. 587-561 

tive to Babylon, together with the prophet Ezechiel and a 
multitude of warriors and artisans (599). Sedecias, who 
succeeded Jechonias, made an alliance with the kings of 
Egypt, Tyre, Moab, and Idumea against Babylon. Nabu- 
chodonosor marched on Jerusalem, which he took after a 
siege of two years. Sedecias, the last king of Juda, had 
his eyes plucked out and was sent chained to Babylon, as 
were all who had escaped the fury of the conqueror. The 
Temple was burnt to ashes, and the walls of Jerusalem razed 
to the ground (587). 

14. Tyre was the next to fall under Nabnchodonosor's 
vengeance. The Tynans resisted for thirteen years, but at 
length their city, with the king and its inhabitants, fell 
into his hands (574). After ravaging the countries that had 
revolted against him he returned, loaded with the riches 
of his conquests, to Babylon. 

15. Babylon. — Babylon he made the most magnificent city 
of the world in those days. It was surrounded by two mas- 
sive walls, one enclosing one hundred and twenty-eight 
square leagues, the other seventy-two. The outer wall was 
more than two hundred feet high, with enormous towers 
and gates, and defended by a large moat. Within the en- 
closures was the beautiful city, occupying both banks of 
the Euphrates. On the left bank was the royal city which 
dNTimrod had founded, and here rTabuchodonosor built his 
wondrous palace. He also rebuilt the Tower of Babel, set- 
ting on it the inscription that men had built it after the 
Deluge, but had abandoned it because of the confusion of 
tongues. On the left bank of the river was the profane 
city, peopled chiefly with captives, where the Hebrews were 
allowed their judges and ancient customs. 

16. Kabuchodonosor's Chastisement. — Nabuchodonosor, for 

14. What became of Tyre ? 15. Describe the city of Babylon. What re- 
markable inscription was set on the Tower of Babel? 16. Why •was Nabu- 
chodonosor punished 1 What was his punishment ? 



b.c. 561-538] Assyria and Babylon. 37 

his pride and wickedness, fell under the chastisement of 
Heaven. For seven years he lost his reason and herded with 
the beasts of the field. His reason restored to him, he ac- 
knowledged God's greatness and humbled himself before 
his Creator. He then resumed his place and his power, 
and published an edict proclaiming the wonders that God 
had wrought on him. In the following year (561) he died. 

17. Fall of Babylon (538).— After the death of the great 
monarch his empire soon showed signs of dissolution. His 
successors were unequal to the task of keeping together their 
inheritance, and Cyrus, at the head of the Medes and Per- 
sians, advanced against the city. The inhabitants from 
their -lofty walls mocked at the besiegers. Cyrus by a 
canal turned off the Euphrates, which was Babylon's chief 
defence, and, entering by- the dry bed of the river, surprised 
the city at dead of night, when, stupefied by a debauch, 
Balthassar, the king, was slain, and the prediction of Isaias 
regarding the fate of the city was fulfilled to the letter. 
Babylon was finally deserted and became a heap of ruins. 

SECTION III. Religion, Government, etc. 

18. Religion. — The Assyrians and Babylonians, like the 
Egyptians, had some knowledge of the Supreme Being. 
Like the Egyptians, also, they soon fell into idolatry. They 
confounded the Supreme Being with Assur, founder of 
Mnive ; others with Bel, or Baal (JSTimrod), the founder 
of Babylon. The sun, the moon, and other planets were 
worshipped by the Chaldeans, who attributed to them great 
influence over human affairs. 

19. Government. — The kings of Ninive and Babylon call- 
ed themselves the " vicegerents of the gods over the earth." 
They did not claim to be gods. Their power was as abso- 

On the restoration of his reason what did he do 1 17. Who conquered Babylon ? 
Describe its fall. 18. What was the religion of the Assyrians and Babylonians ? 
19. Describe their government. 



38 History of the World, 

lute as in Egypt. Save the Chaldeans, there were no privi- 
leged classes or castes. The monarchs were liberal in the 
sense of choosing the best men to assist in the government, 
wherever they found them. Many of the Jews were thus 
exalted to high places — Daniel, for instance. 

20. Sciences. — The chief sciences cultivated were mathe- 
matics and astronomy. The Babylonians were the first to 
divide the day into twenty-four hours, the hour into sixty 
minutes, and the minutes into sixty seconds. Pythagoras 
is supjDosed to owe to them his multiplication-table. They 
discerned the lunar and the solar year, and predicted the 
moon's eclipses, but not those of the sun. By astrology the 
Chaldeans claimed to forecast the future, and professed to 
heal by magic. The science of medicine was unknown. 

21. Arts. — The architecture of the Assyrians is rich and 
ornate, as well as massive. All their buildings were of 
brick, baked or dried in the sun. They had the art of 
enamelling, and were wonderfully skilled in jewelled 
work, furniture, arms, wool tissues, linen robes, and car- 
pets richly dyed and embroidered. Their highest intellec- 
tual art, however, is their cuneiform writing, so called from 
the wedge-like form of the characters. These were cut with 
a triangular stiletto on tablets of soft clay, which Avere baked 
when it was desired to preserve them. It is only within 
modern times that the secret of the characters has been dis- 
covered, and the discovery has resulted in confirming and" 
explaining many passages in the Scriptures. 

20. What were the chief sciences taught 1 What do we owe to the Baby- 
lonians ? 21. What was the style of Assyrian architecture ? Describe the 
occupations of the people. What of their writing ? 



b.c. 1921-1822] The Hebrews. 39 

CHAPTER III. 
THE HEBREWS. 

The history of the Hebrews, or Jewish people, begins with the call of Abra- 
ham (1921 B.C.), and divides itself into clearly defined periods : 1. From the call 
of Abraham to the Exodus from Egypt under Moses and Josue (1921-1451). 
2. From the Exodus to the establishment of royalty (1451-1095). 3. From the 
establishment of royalty to the separation of the kingdoms of Israel and Juda 
(1095 975). 4. From the separation to the Babylonian captivity (721-536). 
5. From the Babylonian captivity to the Roman conquest of Judea (536-63). 

1. Origin of the Hebrews. — To preserve the knowledge 
of the 'truth as first delivered to man, and to save the world 
from the complete darkness of idolatry and corruption, God 
raised up a special people. The father and founder of this 
people was Abraham, a descendant of Sern, who dwelt in 
Ur, a city of the Chaldees. The inhabitants of Ur were 
idolaters, and God, revealing Himself to Abraham in a vision, 
bade him leave the country (Mesopotamia) and go to a 
land which his descendants should possess (Chanaan). 

2. Abraham in Chanaan. — Abraham obeyed the voice of 
God and passed over into Chanaan, or Palestine. There he 
lived a pastoral life, and became rich in flocks and herds. 
He worshipped the one G-od, creator of heaven and earth, 
and bound himself and his descendants to God by a solemn 
covenant, promising to walk before G-od in innocence. And 
God promised that in Abraham and his seed should all the 
nations of the earth be blessed. Abraham grew in power 
and in wealth, and made alliance with the neighboring 
princes. On his death, near Hebron, he left the leader- 
ship and patriarchate to Isaac, his son by his wife Sara. 
Another son, Ismael, whose mother was Agar, an Egyp- 

How is the history of the Hebrew people divided 1 1. What was their mission ? 
Who was the founder of the race ? What was God's command to Abraham? 2. 
Describe Abraham's life in Chanaan. What covenant did he make with God ? 



40 Uiatoky of the World. [ b .c. 1822-1491 

tian, settled in Arabia, and from him the Arabs claim de- 
scent. To Isaac succeeded Jacob (afterwards called. Israel, 
hence the name Israelites). Jacob had twelve sons, who 
became the chiefs and founders of the twelve tribes of 
Israel. 

3. The Israelites in Egypt. — Of these sons Jacob most 
loved Joseph. This favoritism excited the envy of the 
others, and they sold Joseph to an Egyptian as a slave. 
The boy was carried into Egypt, and there rose in time to 
be chief minister of the realm under one of the Pharaos. 
Joseph brought over the whole family of bis father into 
Egypt, and they were allowed to settle in the land of Go- 
shen, where they pursued (heir pastoral life. When Joseph 
died the Hebrews, who had greatly multiplied, were reduced 
to slavery, and continued in that degraded condition, main- 
taining their traditions and the' knowledge and worship of 
the true God, until the rise of Moses, a descendant of Levi, 
the third son of Jacob. 

4. The Exodus. — Moses, by a cruel decree of Pharao, was, 
with all the other new-born males of the Israelites, con- 
demned to perish in the Nile. Saved by his mother and 
sister, Miriam, he was adopted by a daughter of the Pha- 
rao, and educated as a prince. But he retained the feel- 
ings and religion of his race. Compelled to fly from Egypt 
for slaying an Egyptian who struck a Hebrew, he took re- 
fuge in Madian, where he married the daughter of Jethro, 
the prince of the land. Returning later to Egypt with his 
brother, Aaron, he prevailed upon the Pharao to allow the 
Israelites to depart, but not before the country had been 
scourged by a series of awful visitations. This departure is 
known as the Exodus. 

5. The Ten Commandments. — Moses led them across the 

What patriarch succeeded Abraham ? Who was Ismael 1 Who founded tho 
twelve tribes of Israel 1 3. How came the Israelites in Egypt % What was their 
lot there ? 4. Who was Moses \ Describe the Exodus. 



b.c. 1491-1055] The Hebrews. 41 

Ked Sea, and the Pharao, pursuing ihem, perished in the 
passage Avith his army. Crossing the desert, they arrived at 
Mount Sinai aud encamped at the foot. On Mount Sinai 
Moses received the commandments of God to his people and 
delivered them to the children of Israel. They were ten in 
number, and form the most sublime law ever given to man. 
They cover every moral and legal obligation, and lay down 
the law of monotheism. 

6. The Israelites in Chanaan. — The Israelites often fell 
away from this great moral code, but never without entail- 
ing upon themselves punishment and disaster. On the 
death of Moses, Josue succeeded to the leadership and con- 
ducted the tribes across the Jordan into Chanaan, which he 
concpiered. There they settled down under the rule of 
Judges, the government being a sort of republican federa- 
tion. They had constant quarrels with their neighbors, but 
sometimes gave way to the idolatry and corruption that sur- 
rounded them. 

7. Establishment of the Monarchy.— There was an almost 
constant succession of anarchy and civil strife under the 
Judges, and the people, desiring a centralized power and 
strong ruler over all, asked for a king like the nations 
around them. Saul was chosen first king of Israel. He 
gained many victories over the neighboring peoples, but, 
growing jealous of the prowess of David, his son-in-law, 
spent the later years of his reign in pursuing him. De- 
feated in battle by the Philistines, and three of his sons 
falling, he slew himself. 

8. David and Solomon. — On the death of Saul, David was 
proclaimed king by his own tribe of Juda, but a son of 
Saul was accepted by all the other tribes. A bloody civil 
strife was the result, David finally concpiering and making 

5. How were the Ten Commandments given to the people ? What was their 
essence? 6. Who succeeded Moses in command? Describe the government of 
the Judges. 7. How was monarchy establisned in Israel ? Give the story of Saul. 



42 History of the World. [ b .c. 1055-721 

Jerusalem his capital. He became a strong ruler and con- 
queror, and greatly extended his domain. He was succeed- 
ed by his son, Solomon, during whose long and illustrious 
reign the kingdom of Israel reached the height of its glory 
and power. He built a magnificent temple and palace in 
Jerusalem, and the fame of his wisdom spread to all lands. 
Eiches and luxury entered in and wrought corruption among 
the people, Solomon himself giving the example. 

9. Separation of the Tribes. — On his death the people 
demanded reform. It was refused by Eehoboam, son and 
successor of Solomon. The result was a secession of ten 
tribes, who chose Jeroboam for king, leaving only Juda 
and Benjamin to Eehoboam. And thus the kingdom of 
Israel became divided into the two kingdoms of Israel and 
Juda, the latter remaining loyal to the house of David. 

10. Fall of Israel. — The kingdom of Israel speedily fell 
into corruption and idolatry. It lasted through two hun- 
dred and fifty years of constant struggle and disturbance. 
It finally became a tributary of Assyria under Phul. Tig- 
lath-pileser transported many of the inhabitants to Assyria, 
and its power was finally broken by Salmanasar, who de- 
stroyed the capital, Samaria (721), and scattered the Israelites 
among the provinces of his empire, where they were gradu- 
ally absorbed and lost in the population. 

11. The Babylonian Captivity. — Juda, preserving the re- 
ligion of its fathers, lasted longer. But it also fell a prey 
to corruption, civil strife, and at times to idolatry. To 
save his kingdom Achaz called in Tiglath-pileser, and made 
himself a tributary of the Assyrian monarch. Idolatry was 
introduced. There were various attempts at reform, but 
the state gradually grew weaker and corruption stronger. 
It lay between the rival powers of Egypt and Babylon, and 

8. Who succeeded Saul ? Describe David's reign. For what was Solomon 
famed ? 9. What occasioned the division in Israel ? 10. What was the fate of 
the kingdom of Israel 1 11. What was the fate of the kingdom of Juda ? 



b.c. 583-a d. 69] The Hebrews. 43 

finally fell to Nabuchodonosor, who took Jerusalem and 
carried away thousands of the chief inhabitants captive to 
Babylon. 

12. A revolt in Juda brought Nabuchodonosor back 
(588), and Jerusalem was again taken. The king, Sede- 
cias, had his eyes put out and was sent a prisoner to 
Babylon. The temple was plundered and burned, and the 
walls and palaces of the city were destroyed. All the chief 
citizens were now carried off into captivity, and the Jewish 
people was soon after dispersed. 

13. Judea under foreign Domination. — The Jews remained 
in captivity in Babylon until the destruction of that city 
and empire by Cyrus (538). Suffering restored many of 
their virtues, and Cyrus allowed them to return to their own 
land. A new temple was built (515) and Jerusalem was 
gradually restored. Judea remained a tributary of Persia 
until the empire fell under Alexander the Great, who himself 
visited the holy city of the Jews. After Alexander's death 
Judea became a province of his successors in Egypt and 
Syria. Greek letters, science, philosophy, and refinement 
came in, and with these scepticism among the wealthier 
and more learned classes of the Jews. With the ascend- 
ency of Rome they passed under the power of the Romans, 
and Judea became a Roman province. Such it remained 
down to the birth of Christ. A final revolt against Rome 
led to the utter destruction of Jerusalem by Titus (a.d. 
70) and the dispersion of the Jewish people. 

12. What was Nabuchodonosor's treatment of trie Jews 1 13. Who freed the 
Jews from captivity ? What was the subsequent fate of Judea ? What led to 
the destruction of Jerusalem ? 



44 History of the World. [b.c. 710-635 

CHAPTER IV. 
MEDIA AND PERSIA. 

The history of Media and Persia is divided into two periods : 1. From the 
remotest times to the death of Cyrus (529 b.c.) 2. From the death of Cyrus to 
the heginning of the Median wars (529-500 B.C.) 

SECTION I. Origin of the Medes and Persians : Early Government ; Con- 
quest and Empire of Cyrus (559-529 B.C.) 

1. Bejoces (710-657).— The Medes sprang from Madai, 
the son of Japheth. Japhetk's descendants called themselves 
Aryans — meaning " noble . " or " excellent." They occupied 
Bactriana and the vicinity. The Medes were divided into 
two classes : the Magi, or " great ones," and the warriors. 
The earlier inhabitants of the country subjugated by the, 
Medes are supposed to have formed the inferior classes. In 
the tenth century Media became a tributary of Assyria. 
Arbaces restored its independence (789). It was not till 710 
that the tribes combined under one head, Dejoces, whom 
they chose for king. He built Ecbatana, the capital, and 
his rule was wise and firm. 

2. Conquest of Persia (650); Phraortes (657-635); Cy- 
axares I. (635-595). — The Persians, a neighboring people, 
were also descended from Japheth. They comprised ten 
tribes, divided into three classes : the warriors, agricultu- 
rists, and nomads. The tribes were leagued under a head 
chief. Achemenes, the chief, was attached and reduced 
to vassalage by Phraortes, son and successor of Dejoces. 
Phraortes also conquered Parthia, Bactriana, and all Cen- 
tral Asia. His son, Cyaxares, avenged his father's death in 
battle with the ISTinivites by destroying the second Assy- 
How is the history of Media and Persia divided ? 1. Who were the Medes 1 

Describe their divisions. Who was their first king ? 2. Describe the Persians 
and their relations with the Medes. By whom were they conquered 1 



bc. 635-544] Media and Persia. 45 

rian Empire (625). His empire stretched from the left 
bank of the Tigris to the interior of Armenia, held by the 
Lydians. 

3. These were the descendants of Lud, son of Sem, and 
were a brave and warlike people. Phrygia and Oappadocia 
were in their hands, as also Troy and other cities of Ionia. 
Alvattes, their king, made a stubborn fight against Cyax- 
ares, and the war ended at the battle of the " Eclipse." An 
eclipse of the sun so terrified both sides that they ceased 
fighting and concluded peace (595). Alyattes ceded part of 
Cappadocia and gave his daughter in marriage to Astyages, 
son of Oyaxares. 

4. Astyages (595-559). — Astyages was a peaceful mon- 
arch. He married his daughter to Cambyses, grandson of 
Achemenes. From this wedding was born Cyrus, after- 
wards the Great. The education of the young Cyrus was 
of the most careful kind, and his natural capabilities were of 
the best. He became while still young a great general and 
had all the, qualities of a wise ruler. He marched against 
the Assyrians, the foes of the Medes, and beat them with 
great slaughter, killing their king. After further conquests 
he returned to Media and married the daughter of Oyax- 
ares II. , whose dowry was Media. 

5. Croesus; Battle of Thymbra (544). — About the mid- 
dle of the fourth century B.C. there were four great powers 
in the East — Media, the Babylonian Empire, Lydia, and 
Egypt. Cyrus had the ambition to conquer all and con- 
vert them into one power. Croesus, King of Lyclia, formed 
a league with the kings of Egypt and Babylon. He was a 
very able and wealthy monarch, with nearly all Asia Minor 
under his control. Determined to stay the advance of 
Cyrus towards the Caucasus, he crossed the Halys and gave 

2. For what is Cyaxares famous ? 3. Who were the Lydians ? How was peace 
effected with Astyages ? 4. Who was Cyrus? 5. What were the four great Eas- 
tern powers at this time 1 What was Cyrus's ambition ? 



4G History of the World. [ b .c. 544-522 

battle. The campaign was indecisive, and lie retreated to- 
wards Thymbra. 

6. Here Cyrus, at the head of two hundred thousand men 
and three hundred chariots armed with scythes, gave battle. 
Croesus had twice as many soldiers, but the skill and im- 
petuosity of the youthful general achieved an easy victory. 
Cyrus marched at once on Sardis, the capital of Lydia. 
Defeating Croesus a second time, the capital and person of 
the king fell into his hands. He proved as wise a con- 
queror as he was brave a general. He kept Croesus by him 
and always consulted him. With the fall of Sardis the 
whole of Asia Minor fell into his hands. The Phocians, 
rather than yield, set sail with their families and took refuge 
in Marseilles, which their ancestors had founded. 

7. Capture of Babylon (538). — The king of Babylon, hav- 
ing lost his allies, was now besieged in his capital. The 
result of the siege was the destruction of the Babylonian 
Empire. Entering Babylon, Cyrus put an end to the Jewish 
captivity, and published an edict inviting the Jews back to 
their own country, and announcing his intention to erect a 
temple to the true Cod in Jerusalem. The end of this 
great man's reign was peaceful. 

SECTION II. Cambyses (529-522 B.C.); Smerdis (522-521 B.C.); Darius I. 
(521-500 B.C.) ; Institutions and Customs of the Medes and Persians. 

8. Cambyses. — Cambyses, eldest son of Cyrus, ascended 
the throne on the death of his father. He had his father's 
ambition, but not his virtues or capacity. He set out to 
conquer Ethiopia. The expedition cost him half his army. 
He was cruel and capricious in his government. In a fit of 
fury he slew his brother Smerdis, and then his sister for 
bewailing the loss. A magian named Smerdis, closely re- 

6. Describe the battle of Thymbra. How did Cyrus treat Crcesus ? 7. What 
was the edict of Cyrus 1 8. Who succeeded Cyrus ? Describe the reign of Cam- 
byses. What of his death and of Smerdis ? 



b.c. 522-506] Media and Persia. 47 

sembling the prince, assumed the title and had himself 
proclaimed king as the son and successor of Cyrus. Oam- 
byses met with an accidental death while marching against 
the usurper (522). 

9. Darius. — Smerdis secured the crown, but was de- 
throned and slain by a conspiracy of the nobles under 
Darius, son of Hystaspes. Darius was then proclaimed 
king. He belonged to an illustrious family. He had from 
the outset to contend against many revolts. The most 
formidable was that of Babylon, which it took him over 
twenty months to subdue, and 'the city was only taken by 
treachery on the part of Zopyrus, one of Darius' nobles. 
Zopyrus was made governor of Babylon. Darius about this 
time confirmed the edict of Cyrus in favor of the Jews, 
and the Temple of Jerusalem was solemnly dedicated by 
Zorobabel (515). 

10. Darius and the Scythians (508-508). — Darius thought 
to conquer Europe. He first marched against the Scyth- 
ians, a hardy nomad race, who inhabited the country be- 
tween the Danube and the Tanai's. He left Susa with an 
army of six hundred thousand men, and crossed the Thra- 
cian Bosporus and the Danube on a bridge of boats. The 
Scythians retreated before him, filling up the wells and 
destroying the forage. The army of Darius began to suffer 
from famine, while they followed an ever-flying enemy into 
a land of desolation. At length they were compelled to 
retreat, pursued in turn by the Scythians, and it was only 
with the greatest difficulty that Darius succeeded in plac- 
ing the Danube between the remnants of his army and 
their relentless pursuers. To wipe out his disgrace 
he left Megabyzus, his lieutenant, with eighty thousand 
men, in Europe. Megabyzus imposed tribute on Macedonia, 

9. What became of Smerdis? What of the revolt of Babylon? How did 
Darius treat the Jews 1 10. Describe the campaign of Darius against the 
Scythians. What did Megabyzus accomplish 1 



48 



History of the World. 




b.c. 508-436] Media and Persia. 49 

subjugated Thrace, and occupied Byzantium, on the Bos- 
porus. 

11. The Persian Empire under Darius. — "When Darius 
declared war against the Greeks .his empire extended to 
Europe, and comprised : in Africa, Egypt, with Libya and 
Cyrenaica ; in Asia, all the countries beyond the Indus and 
Jaxartes. There had never before been so vast an empire. 
Susa, the central city, was his capital. Susa and Perse- 
polis (the latter intended as the royal burial-place) were 
adorned with magnificent marble palaces. The empire was 
divided into twenty satrapies, which were taxed in propor- 
tion. The tax, though fixed with great moderation, made 
Darius odious to his subjects. They called him Merchant 
where they called Cambyses Master. 

12. Religion, Government, etc. — The founder of the Per- 
sian religion was Zoroaster, a legislator and conqueror, who 
lived about 2000 B.C. His religion had a likeness to the 
truth, but was greatly mixed with error. The conflict be- 
tween good and evil in the world he attributed to the 
conflict between Aliriman, the god of evil, and Ormuzd, 
the god of good. Ormuzd was represented by light, fire, 
and, above all, by the rising sun. The conflict was to end 
at the end of the world, when a greater god than either 
would intervene. Then Ahriman, with his associate evil 
spirits, Avould be cast into an eternal prison ; and Ormuzd, 
with his disciples, rewarded by eternal happiness. The 
bodies of the dead were buried. Their priests were termed 
magi, and they had also a learned and philosophic class. 

13. The monarch had supreme power. He was " the 
great king," "the king of kings." His palace was called 
the "Gate," as it is to day among the Turks. He had a 
council of ministers to assist him in governing. Each sa- 
il. What was the empire of Darius 1 Name the capital. How was the empire 

divided ? 12. Who founded the Persian religion 1 Describe that religion. 13. 
How was Persia governed ? 



50 History of the World. [ b .c. 1700-574 

trapy, or province, was in the care of a satrap, whose pow- 
ers were unlimited. Cyrus brought the military science of 
this naturally warlike race to a high degree of perfection. 



CHAPTER V. 
PHffiNICIA AND CARTHAGE. 

SECTION I. Sidon and Tyre. 

1. Sidon. — The Phoenicians were descended from Cha- 
naan, the son of Cham. They occupied from early times 
the coast between the Mediterranean and the southern line 
of Lebanon. They became a seafaring and commercial peo- 
ple. Sidon was called "the city of fishermen," and even 
in the time of Abraham enjoyed a nourishing commerce. 
For safety's sake the Phoenicians became tributaries of their 
powerful neighbor, Egypt, in the seventeenth century B.C. 
In 1209 b.o. a Philistine fleet suddenly entered the port of 
Sidon and utterly destroyed the city. 

2. Tyre. — Tyre then became the chief city of Phoenicia. 
The kings of Tyre were always the allies of the Jewish 
people. Hiram, one of their number, furnished Solomon 
with the workmen and materials needed for the construc- 
tion of the Temple. Later on Jezabel, a Tyrian princess, 
married to Achab, King of Israel, induced him to renounce 
the worship of the true Cod. The destruction of Tyre by 
ISTabuchodonosor (574 B.C.) induced her colonies to recog- 
nize the Babylonian supremacy. 

3. Commerce and Colonies. — The Phoenicians discovered 
the art of navigation, and were the first to engage in maritime 
commerce. They established marts of trade and exchange, 

1. What was the character of the Phoenicians 1 What became of Sidon ? 
2. What relations existed between Tyre and the Jews? Who was Jezabel? 
What was the fate of Tyre 1 



b.c. 872] Prcenicia and Carthage. 51 

which soon developed into flourishing colonies. They had 
stations at Cyprus, Rhodes, and other islands of the iEgean 
Sea, and on the shores of the Euxine. The Mediterranean 
was the great highway of this husy people, and they ven- 
tured north as far as the isles of Britain, carrying intelli- 
gence and knowledge of the useful arts with them. They 
also carried on a land commerce extending all over Asia. 

4. Arts and Religion. — The Phoenicians invented the art 
of making glass, and were skilled in the working of metals, 
carving ivory, painting vases, and making jewels. They are 
also credited with the invention of the alphabet and of writ- 
ing, which they carried abroad into Greece and the other 
colonies. Their chief source of wealth was the beautiful pur- 
ple dye, extracted from a shell-fish, which they applied to 
stuffs and adopted as their royal color. Their divinity was 
the Baal of the Assyrians, called also Baal- Moloch, or ' e sove- 
reign destroyer," because to him were immolated children of 
the noblest parentage by casting them into a burning brazier 
or shutting them up in a heated statue of the god. It was 
the duty of the mothers to look on at this terrible sacrifice 
with tearless eyes and unmoved countenance. The victim 
was supposed to be united with the being of the god. 

SECTION II. Carthage. 

5. Eise of Carthage. — Carthage, near the site of the mod- 
ern Tunis, is supposed to have been founded (872 B.C.) by 
Elissa, better known as Dido (fugitive), the daughter of 
the King of Tyre, who was compelled to fly by her brother, 
Pj^gmalion. The "new city" speedily increased in popu- 
lation, wealth, power, and enterprise, until its marts were 
known all along the African shore of the Mediterranean. 
After the destruction of Tyre Carthage assumed the leader- 

3. For what are the Phoenicians chiefly famed 1 Mention some of their colo- 
nies. 4. In -what arts were they skilled? What inventions are attributed to 
them 1 5. What city succeeded Tyre in supremacy ? 



52 History of the Would. [ b .c. 872-368 

ship of the Phoenician colonies. She increased the number 
of her soldiers and vessels of war, and gave birth to men of 
military genius. This made her a great power. 

6. War in Sicily (480). — Hamilcar, one of her generals, 
landed in Sicily Avith an army of three hundred thousand 
men, and laid siege to Himera. He was defeated by the 
strategy of Gelou, the ruler of Syracuse, whom the Sicil- 
ians called in to their aid. Hamilcar was slain and his fleet 
fired. The battle took place on the same day as the battle 
of Thermopylae. The Carthaginians sued for peace, which 
they obtained at the costs- of the war and the promise to sac- 
rifice no more human victims to their divinities. 

7. Destruction of Himera (410) and Agrigentum (406). — 
Sicily continued to suffer internally, and now one, now an- 
other foreign aid was called in. The Carthaginians again 
found pretext to enter under the command of Hannibal, 
grandson of Hamilcar. Hannibal laid siege to the city be- 
fore which his grandfather was killed, took it, and razed it 
to the foundations. He then besieged Agrigentum, a rich 
and powerful city, which fell after a siege of eight months, 
and yielded a great booty to the captors. 

8. Dionysius the Elder (405-368) ; Himilco. — Dionysius 
the Elder, "tyrant" or ruler of Syracuse, waged an unsuc- 
cessful contest against the Carthaginians, and was com- 
pelled to sign a disadvantageous peace. He made immense 
preparations for another struggle, and fell treacherously on 
the Carthaginians in Sicily. Himilco, who had taken Agri- 
gentum, again entered the island at the head of a formi- 
dable army, and recaptured all the cities that Dionysius had 
taken, shutting the latter up in his own capital. Himilco 
took a cruel revenge ; but his army was attacked with pes- 
tilence while besieging Syracuse. Dionysius took courage 

6. Describe the expedition of Hamilcar. The result? 7. Give an account of 
Hannibal's exploits in Sicily. 8. Describe the war with Dionysius the Elder. 
What befell Himilco? 



B.C. 368-307] Phcenicia and Carthage. 53 

from this, and Himilco stole back to Carthage with a bare 
remnant of his forces. In his despair he killed himself. 

9. Timoleon's Successes (345-343). — The death of Diony- 
sius the Elder was the signal for civil strife in Syracuse. 
Dionysius, his son, driven from the city, re-entered it by 
force and committed great barbarities. The Carthaginians 
again landed under Mago. The people of Syracuse appealed 
to Corinth, who sent them Timoleon with only a thousand 
men. But he was a skilled general and his troops were 
veterans. Mago was beaten off and condemned to death for 
his failure. A larger fleet was sent out. Timoleon, at the 
head of six thousand men, marched to meet seventy thou- 
sand Carthaginians, and his boldness and skill were re- 
warded by a complete victory. The Carthaginian camp and 
all its treasures fell into his hands. Concluding an honora- 
ble peace, ho then retired into private life. 

10. Agathocles (317-289) ; His African Campaigns (311- 
307). — Agathocles, a Sicilian of low birth, aided by the 
Carthaginians, seized the sovereignty of Syracuse soon after 
the death of Timoleon. Seeing Carthage weakened, he 
turned against it. An army landed and laid siege to Syra- 
cuse. To divert the attack he boldly carried the war into 
Africa. On landing in Africa, to inspire his troops with 
courage he burned the fleet that conveyed them thither, 
marched on Tunis, which he took by assault, and secured 
an immense booty. The Carthaginians, believing him to 
be shut up in his own capital, were filled with consterna- 
tion. The hasty levies that they sent against him were cut 
in pieces. The Syracusans, hearing of his success, fell on 
the besieging force, surprised and destroyed them. 

11. Agathocles returned to Sicily. Going back to Africa, 
he found the tide of success changed, and, deserting his 

9. What followed the death of Dionysius the Elder 1 Who was Timoleon 1 
What did he achieve? 10. Describe the campaign of Agathocles in Africa. 
11. What became of Affathocles ? 



54 History of the World. [ b .c. 289 

army, returned again to Syracuse. The soldiers revenged 
themselves by strangling his sons, and Agathocles himself 
perished miserably (289). The Carthaginian struggle in 
Sicily was afterwards continued with Pyrrhus, of Epirus, 
and the Romans. The Punic wars began in 264 B.C., and 
ended in 146 by the ruin of Carthage. 

12. Carthaginian Life and Government.— The Cartha- 
ginians, notwithstanding their wealth, were austere even to 
cruelty in their mode of life. They were famed for in- 
genuity, enterprise, and treachery, on the testimony of 
Roman historians, who were their foes. Punic faith has 
thus passed into a byword. The military forces of Car- 
thage were chiefly composed of mercenaries paid to fight her 
battles. Her government was republican in form, with two 
suffetes, or presiding magistrates, elected annually. Then 
came the people, or body of the state, who left the care of 
public affairs to the senate. The senate was the body that 
debated and decided on all important affairs of state. When 
the senate was divided in opinion appeal was made to the 
people for final decision ; but when the senate was unani- 
mous its decision was accepted. The people were happy 
under this rule, and rarely was there an instance of revolt in 
the five hundred years of their history. 

With what great powers had the Carthaginians to contend? What wars 
ruined Carthage ? 12. What was tho character of the Carthaginians } How did 
they carry on wars ? Describe their government. 



b.c. 2000-1 1S4] Greece. 55 

CHAPTEK VI. 

GREECE. 

The history of Greece is divided into three periods : 1. The time anterior to 
the Median wars (2000-500 B.C.) 2. During the Median wars (500-449 B.C.) 
3. The Peloponnesian war (449-360 B.C.) 

SECTION I. Primitive Greece. 

1. Origin of the Greeks. — The Greeks claimed to have 
been begotten of the soil on which they dwelt. They came, 
however,, from the East and were descendants of Japheth. 
The Pelasgi first came, crossing over from Asia Minor (about 
2000). They are said to have founded Sicyon and Mycenae, 
the two most ancient cities of Greece. About 1600 B.C. came 
the Hellenes, whence the name Hellas. The early history is 
for the most part mythical. Cecrops, an Egyptian, is credited 
with giving the inhabitants of Attica a set form of govern- 
ment. Cadmus, a Phoenician, bnilt the city of his name, 
and also the citadel of Thebes. He taught the people the 
alphabet and the art of writing. Danaus, an Egyptian, 
settled in Argos and introduced farming. Pelops, a Phry- 
gian, conquered the southern part of the country, whence 
its name, Peloponnesus. 

2. Heroic Age; Trojan War (1194-1184); Homer. — 
What is called the heroic age in Grecian history extends 
from the fourteenth to the twelfth century. It is mythical, 
rilled. with the exploits of demi-gods and heroes. Within 
this time, however, occurred the expedition of the Argo- 
nauts in the thirteenth century. They went to Colchis in 
search of the "golden fleece" — that is to say, in search of 
wealth. There was also the War of the Seven Chiefs under 

How is the histoiy of Greece divided? 1. Describe the origin and early history 
of the Greeks, 2. What is meant by the Grecian heroic age ? What was the 
expedition of the Argonauts ? 



56 History of tee World. [b.c. 1184-898 

Adrastus, King of Argos, who strove to drive King Eteocles 
from Thebes and set his brother Polynices in his place. 
The War of the Epigoni was the result of this. The Epi- 
goni were the sons of the chiefs slain before Thebes. They 
leagued together ten years later and took the city from the 
descendants of Cadmus. Finally came the Trojan war, 
celebrated in Homer, where the Greeks under Agamemnon, 
after a ten years' siege, took and destroyed that city. This 
siege first brought the Greeks together in concert. 

3. The Dorians in the Peloponnesus. — "The return of 
the Heraclidae," or descendants of Hercules, occurred 
twenty-four years after the siege of Troy. These were 
Peloponnesian exiles in Doris, who resolved on returning 
to their native soil. Under the lead of Aristodemus, and 
with the aid of the Dorians, they constructed a fleet, and, 
crossing the Gulf of Corinth, made a sudden descent on the 
Peloponnesian coast. The invasion was successful. Tisa- 
menes, King of Sparta and Argos, withdrew with his people 
to Achaia. The iEolians emigrated to Asia Minor. The 
Ionians withdrew to Attica. 

4. Sparta. — The Dorians established a double dynasty, 
called the Agidse and the Proclidse, descendants of the 
twin sons of Aristodemus, who himself perished in the 
invasion. Lycurgus, the fifth descendant of Procles, in- 
herited the power by the death of his elder brother (898). 
He was a wise legislator and travelled abroad to gain know- 
ledge from the enlightened men of the East. Returning 
to Sparta, he gave the people a constitution, assisted by the 
young king, Charilaus, his nephew, whom he had educated. 
Making the people swear to be faithful to the constitution 
till his return, he for ever disappeared. 

5. Constitution of Lycurgus. — The dual royalty was 

Tell of the wars of the Seven Chiefs, of the Epigoni, and of the Trojan war. 
3. Describe the return of the Heraclidse. 4. Sketch the early history of Sparta. 
Who was Lycurgus, and what did he do 1 



Greece. 57 

maintained. The kings were chief magistrates. They had 
command of the armies, were chief priests, and presided 
over the senate. The chief authority rested with the 
senate, composed of twenty-eight members elected for life 
by the assembly of the people, and no member less than 
sixty years of age. The assembly met every month at time 
of full moon, and had power to adopt or reject the proposi- 
tions of the kings and senate. Five Epliori, or inspectors, 
were charged with the execution of the laws. The Spar- 
tans, who numbered about nine thousand, alone enjoyed all 
political rights. The other inhabitants of the kingdom 
were Helots, or slaves. 

6. Civil Laws and Customs. — The land was divided up 
equally among the citizens, each portion being inalienable. 
The circulation of gold and silver was prohibited. An iron 
coin of very low value alone was used. This was to prevent 
the accumulation of riches. Meals were in common and of 
the frugal kind specified by law, consisting chiefly of a 
little black broth. The kings fared in common with the 
rest. 

7. The children were devoted to the state rather than to 
their parents. A male infant was exposed before the elders. 
If deformed or weakly he was condemned to death and 
cast into a cavern near Mount Tagetus. If strong he 
was given back to the parents till he reached the age of 
seven. He then became the property of the state. His 
head was shaved ; he went barefoot ; and to make him 
hardy and bold he was compelled to train in bloody com- 
bats with his comrades. On the feast of Diana he was 
whipped till the blood came. 

8. In an education of this kind letters had no part. 
The youth, however, were orally instructed in a knowledge 

5. Describe the constitution of Lycurgus. 6. Describe the land laws and civil 
customs in Sparta. 7. What was the training of the Spartan children 1 8. What 
is meant by laconic ? Who were the Helots ? 



58 History of the World. [ b .c. 744-454 

of jfche laws, and modesty of deportment and brevity of 
speech were inculcated, whence the expression laconic. 
The Helots were the most miserable of slaves, and their 
lot was inhumanly hard. In fact, humanity did not enter 
into Spartan law. The gentleness of family life was lost 
in sacrifice to the needs of a brutal and barbarous state. 

9. The First Messenian War. — Taught to love nothing 
but their country, the Spartans hated all other nations. 
On a slight excuse they invaded Messenia, a fertile strip 
which they wished to add to Sparta. The Messenians, at 
first defeated, were rallied by Aristodemus, Avho, in a fit of 
madness, immolated his own daughter to save his country. 
Reverses came ; Aristodemus slew himself on his daugh- 
ter's tomb ; and after a struggle of twenty years the Mes- 
senians succumbed, consenting to give half their annual 
harvest to Sparta (744-724). 

10. Second War (684-688); Aristomenes.— The Messe- 
nians were disaffected, and, after forty years, revolted un- 
der Aristomenes, who destroyed the Lacedaemonian army. 
Sparta sought aid from Athens, who, in derision, sent her 
a lame schoolmaster named Tyrteus. He was a poet, and 
roused the country by his songs. The Messenians were 
overcome by the new enthusiasm and retreated to Ira, 
north of Messene. After a siege of eleven years Ira was 
carried by assault. Aristomenes, disheartened, retired to 
Ehodes. Some of his countrymen went to found a colony 
in Sicily ; the majority were reduced to slavery. These 
afterwards fomented a rebellion of the Helots, known as 
the third Messenian war (464-454) ; but Sparta triumphed 
over all. 

11. Athens. — The Athenians, neighbors of the Spartans, 
early (1045) abolished royalty, under the pretence that no 

9. Sketch the first Messenian war. What of Aristodemus 1 10. How did the 
second Messenian war originate ? Who was Tyrteus ? What was the third Mes- 
senian war and its result? 



b.c. 1045-514] Greece. 59 

man was worthy of being King Oodrns' successor. They 
appointed instead an archon, or governor, for life, whose 
term of authority later on was limited to ten years, and 
finally (684) to one, when it was shared by nine archons. 
There was always trouble in the government. Draco, a 
wise and upright man, was at last asked to draw up a 
code for the people (622). 

12. Draco's code was found to be too severe. It pun- 
ished all offences alike with death. So the people had 
recourse to Solon, a wise and wealthy citizen, whom they 
made archon. He abolished Draco's laws and drew up a 
system improving on that of Lycurgus. It was inspired 
by a just spirit of moderation to all and a true regard 
for the public weal. By it the citizens were divided into 
four classes, three of which possessed the public offices and 
magistracies. The fourth class, the poor, had the right 
of voting in public assemblies where the great affairs of 
state were determined on, after having previously received 
the sanction of the senate. 

13. Pisistratus (561-527).— The citizens swore to observe 
Solon's laws for ten years. He spent those years in for- 
eign travel, and on his return found Athens divided by 
factions and feuds. Pisistratus, a relative of Solon, at 
last succeeded in attaining supreme power (561). He used 
his power well and for the benefit of Athens. He culti- 
vated the taste for letters and arts among his country- 
men. On his death his sons, Hippias and Hipparchus, 
succeeded to the power, and for thirteen years (527-514) 
followed faithfully in the footsteps of their father. Hip- 
parchus was assassinated by Harmodius and Aristogiton 
for a personal injury done to Harmodius. The assassins 
were slain, but were afterwards honored as victims to the 

11. Describe the government at Athens. 12. What was Draco's code? Who 
changed it? Describe the system of Solon. 13. Give the history of Pisistratus. 
Of his sons, Hippias and Hipparchus. 



60 History of the World. 

cause of liberty. Hippias grew suspicious and cruel, and 
was finally driven from the city. With him perished 
Athenian royalty in the year (510) before the expulsion 
of the Tarquins from Eome. 

14. The Republic. — Government by the people was re- 
established. The archon Olisthenes made various changes 
in the constitution, needed by the growing power of the 
state. Athens was now the most powerful rival of Sparta, 
which possessed two-thirds of the Peloponnesus. The Spar- 
tans were averse to the reforms which made their rival more 
favored by the people and altogether a pleasanter power to 
live under. 

15. Religion, Customs, etc. — The Greeks cultivated an 
extraordinary number of extraordinary divinities. There 
was a deity for every human passion, and a festival in its 
honor. The worship of Bacchus, the god of wine, was 
especially favored at Athens, and his festival was a de- 
bauch. The same is true of the festival of Ceres, cele- 
brated at Eleusis every fifth year. The festival lasted 
nine days, and it was made a capital offence to reveal any 
of its secrets. 

16. The Greeks made much of their oracles, the most 
famous of which was that of Apollo at Delphi. The 
oracle spoke through the mouth of a priestess while in 
a real or pretended frenzy. The sayings were guarded 
and obscure, so that they could be conveniently read in op- 
posite senses, being destined to foreshadow events. Peo- 
ple came from all parts, even foreign lands, to consult this 
famous oracle. 

17. Amphictyonic Council. — The Amphictyonic Council, 
attributed to Amphictyon, King of Thessaly, was an asso- 
ciation, at once religious and political, of twelve Greek 

14. What caused the rivalry between Athens and Sparta? 15. Describe the 
religion of the Greeks. 16. Describe the oracle at Delphi. 17. What was the 
Amphictyonic Council ? 



b.c. 500] Greece. 61 

cities to judge upon all important cases, especially at- 
tempts against the rights of men or the sanctuary at Del- 
phi. Decisions were by majority of votes, each city hav- 
ing two. 

18. The Games. — All athletic exercises and public com- 
bats formed part of the religion of the Greeks. There 
were four great public games : the Isthmian, near Corinth, 
held in honor of Neptune ; the Nemean, in Argos, in 
honor of Hercules ; the Pythian, at Delphi, in honor of 
Apollo ; and the most famous of all, the Olympian, at 
Olympia, celebrated every four years. The games were great 
public festivals that brought the people together. They 
were open to all comers to contend ; the conditions being 
that the contestants were of Hellenic blood, freemen, and 
of good character. In 776 Corcebus, a runner, carried off 
the prize at Olympia. From that year the Greeks reck- 
oned their Olympiads, or periods of four years. 

19. The games were horse and foot races, leaping, throw- 
ing the discus or quoit, wrestling, and boxing. The diet of 
the athletes was of the severest kind, the use of wine be- 
ing prohibited. In the races even kings contended for 
the prize. The victor was crowned before the assembled 
Greeks, was borne in triumph to his city, and a breach 
made in the walls for his entry. He was ever after main- 
tained, at public expense. The poets sang his praises, and 
statues were erected in his honor. 

SECTION II. Median Wars (500-449 B.C.) 

20. The Median wars originated in the ambition of Da- 
rius I. of Persia. Having conquered Macedonia, he threat- 
ened the independence of Greece. The Ionians, originally 
an Attic colony, owned one of the richest provinces in 

18. Name the four great public games. What was their object ? What is au 
Olympiad? 19. What was prohibited to athletes? How was a victor at the 
games honored ? 20. What was the origin of the Median wars ? 



62 History of the World. [ b .c. 500-490 

Asia Minor. They chafed under the yoke which Cyrus 
had imposed on them, and, at the instigation of Arista- 
goras, tyrant of Miletus, renounced their allegiance to Per- 
sia. Athens sent them aid. The allies marched on Sardis 
and burnt it (500). This was the signal for a war of 
fifty years between the Persians and the Greeks. 

21. First Median War. — Darius quelled the revolt in 
Ionia, and sent Mardonius, his son-in-law, with a power- 
ful fleet and army against the Greeks. A tempest dis- 
persed the fleet, and the Brygi defeated the army. Da- 
rius sent a more powerful army, preceded by heralds de- 
manding of all the chief cities land and water in the name 
of the Persian king. Such was their mode of exacting sub- 
mission. Most cities submitted. At Athens and Sparta 
the heralds were thrown into a ditch and bade take all 
the land and water they desired. 

22. Battle of Marathon. — Thereupon six hundred vessels 
set sail from the shore of Asia for Attica. They landed an 
army of one hundred and ten thousand men near Marathon, 
a small town within ten miles of Athens. The Athenians 
had only ten thousand soldiers. Aristides the Just, with 
Miltiades and eight other chiefs, was at the head of this 
force. The chief command was ceded to Miltiades. The 
wisdom of the choice showed itself in a complete victory 
for the Athenians after a fierce and bloody conflict. The 
remnants of the Persians fled in their ships. 

23. Miltiades, to whose skill the victory was chiefly due, 
was soon after accused of treason and condemned to pay 
a fine of fifty talents (nearly fifty-three thousand dollars). 
Being unable to pay, he was thrown into prison and per- 
ished there. Aristides also was ostracized by the intrigues 
of Themistocles and banished for ten years. 

21. How were the heralds of Darius treated ? 22. Who commanded the Athe- 
nians at Marathon ? What was the result of the battle ? 23. How were Miltiades 
and Aristides treated 1 



b.c. 485-480] Greece. 63 

24. Xerxes and the Greeks (485-472). — After the death 
of Darius the war against the Greeks was carried on by 
Xerxes, his son. Xerxes did not inherit the great quali- 
ties of his father. He fitted out an enormous expedi- 
tion, and constructed a bridge of boats for the passage 
of his forces across the Hellespont into Greece. A storm 
broke up the bridge. Two other bridges were constructed, 
over which the Persian forces, computed at two millions, 
-passed. 

25. Thermopylae (480). — Before this overwhelming force 
the Greek states at once submitted, with the exception of 
Sparta, Athens, and Platsea. The allies had only a fleet 
of three hundred sail. Leonidas, the Spartan king, with 
a bare four thousand men, held the pass of Thermopylae, 
by which alone the Persians could enter Greece. But all 
were animated with the supremest patriotism and resolved 
to die rather than yield. Xerxes with his vast army was 
surprised to find the pass disputed. He tried every means 
to win over Leonidas, but to the final command to lay 
down his arms the Spartan leader sent the bold reply : 
" Come and take them." 

26. The Persian went to take them ; but it cost him 
three days' desperate fighting and loss to effect nothing. 
He began to despair, when a secret path over the moun- 
tain commanding the Spartan position was treacherously 
revealed to him. The Persians gained the eminence, and 
Leonidas, seeing it was no longer possible to hold the 
pass, heroically dismissed the allies, and with his three 
hundred Spartans resolved to die there in face of the host 
opposed to them. And so they died, with the exception 
of one who escaped to tell the tale and was ever regarded 
as a traitor. The battle of Thermopylae thenceforward be- 

24. Give an account of the invasion of Greece by Xerxes. 25. What states 
held out against the Persians ? Give the story of Thermopylae. 26. What was 
the fate of Leonidas and his three hundred? 



64 History of the World. [ b .c. 480-479 

longed to all history as a supreme example of self-sacri- 
ficing patriotism. 

27. Salamis (480). — Xerxes then marched in, and, ravag- 
ing Phocia, advanced to Athens. He found there only a heap 
of ashes. The Athenians had burnt their city rather than 
let it fall into the hands of the enemy. The battle was 
now transferred to the sea, where the Persian fleet pre- 
pared to overwhelm the Greeks. From a height near Sa- 
lamis Xerxes looked down upon the combat. Theraisto- 
cles led the Greeks. The Persians, under the eyes of their 
monarch, made a fierce onslaught, but were driven back. 
The attack was soon changed into a retreat. Xerxes, dis- 
mayed, fled to the Hellespont, only to find his bridge bro- 
ken, and the Persian monarch himself escaped to Asia in a 
small fishing-smack. 

28. Plataea and Mycale (479). — Nevertheless he left an 
enormous force behind him under the command of Mar- 
donius, his brother-in-law ; but the shadow of defeat clung 
to them. The opposing forces met near Platsea, in Bceo- 
tia. The Athenians and Lacedaemonian allies were under 
the joint commands of Aristides and Pausanias. The bat- 
tle was prolonged and desperate, but the death of the 
Persian general decided the day in favor of the Greeks. 
Of the three hundred thousand Persians engaged not more 
than fifty thousand are reported to have escaped. On the 
same day a great naval victory was won at Mycale over 
the still formidable remnant of the Persian fleet, result- 
ing in a loss of all the Persian vessels. Thenceforth no 
Persian army ever crossed the Hellespont (479). 

29. Themistocles. — Themistocles now set himself to the 
work of rebuilding Athens. The Spartans, jealous of their 
rival, argued that it was for the common interest there should 

27. Describe events subsequent to the battle of Thermopylae. Who command- 
ed at Salamis? What -was the result of the battle ? 28. Describe the battles of 
Plataea and Mycale. The result ? 29. Who rebuilt Athens 1 



b c. 479-466] Greece. 65 

be no fortified city out of the Peloponnesus. Tliemistocles 
set out alone to argue the case in Sparta, secretly urging 
his countrymen while the negotiations pended to push on 
the work night and day. At Sparta he waited for the 
arrival of his colleagues, and by his skill so delayed the 
negotiations that by the time he made the open declara- 
tion that the Athenians needed a fortified city the work 
was too far advanced, and the Athenians too powerful, 
to be undone (478). Themistocles, returning to Athens, 
constructed and fortified the Piraeus to further protect the 
city. 

30. Themistocles' Reward. — Though a true Athenian, The- 
mistocles was full of ambition. His ambition and love of 
power cost him his place and popularity, and he suffered 
the fate of Miltiades. He was banished (473). Meanwhile 
Xerxes was assassinated and succeeded by his son, Artaxerxes 
Longimanus (473). At the court of this prince Themis- 
tocles sought and found refuge. Cimon, the son of Milti- 
ades, was appointed commander-in-chief in his stead (471). 

31. Cimon. — Cimon, while he was the equal both of his 
father and Themistocles in war, was their superior in peace, 
patriotism, and administrative capacity. He drove the 
Persians from the Grecian territory and pursued them into 
their own. At the mouth of the Euiymedon he defeated 
their fleet, and the same day, landing his army, he cut theirs 
in pieces (470). He threatened Artaxerxes himself, who as 
a last resource asked Themistocles to oppose him. Bather 
than do so Themistocles put an end to his life (466). Ar- 
taxerxes was finally compelled to conclude a peace with 
Cimon, by which Persia lost all the Greek cities in Asia 
Minor and promised to withdraw its fleets and armies 
far from the Grecian coast. 

Describe the mission of Themistocles at Sparta. 30. How was Themisto- 
cles rewarded? Where did he seek refuge? Who succeeded him at Athens? 
31. Describe the achievements of Cimon. What was the end of Themistocles ? 



66 History of the World. [ b .c. 431 

SECTION III. Pericles; the Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.) 

32. Pericles. — With their victory over the Persians the 
alliance of the Greeks dissolved and the old internal jea- 
lousies were resumed. The results of the war with Persia 
gave Athens the pre-eminence. The rest of the Greeks 
agreed to pay Athens an annual sum to defray the expenses 
of the war and to build ships. The truth was, Athens was 
the mind and right arm of Greece. Pericles, who succeed- 
ed Cimon, was his equal in military genius, and a man of 
great eloquence and winning grace of manner. His govern- 
ment was the crown of Athens' glory. 

33. He beautified the city by erecting magnificent temples 
and public buildings that are still the wonder of the world. 
Phidias, the sculptor, was his chief assistant in this. He 
encouraged the growth of letters, and his time was the time 
of the great Greek dramatists, iEschylus, Sophocles, Eu- 
ripides, and Aristophanes, whose works are the wonder of 
all time. History flourished in Herodotus, Thucydides, and 
Xenophon. Isocrates and Lysias were great in oratory. 
Besides Phidias sculpture and painting counted Callicrates, 
Apollodorus, Zeuxis, and Parrhasius. Philosophy shone, in 
Anaxagoras, Socrates, and Plato. Hippocrates gave a new 
character to the science of medicine ; and Pericles himself 
crowned them all as statesman, general, admiral, orator, 
and citizen. 

34. The Pelopomiesian War. — This supremacy of intellect 
and power provoked the jealousy of the rest of the Greeks. 
They complained that their money was wasted in embellish- 
ing Athens. A league, under the leadership of Archida- 
mus, King of Sparta, and comprising nearly all the Pelo- 
ponnesus, was made against Athens. Archidamus, at the 

32. What state now took the lead in Greece 1 Who succeeded Cimon 1 33. 
Describe the time of Pericles and the great men of that epoch. 34. What led 
to the Peloponnesian war ? Who took the lead against Athens ? - 



b.c. 431-420] Greece. 67 

head of sixty thousand men, invade^. Attica, and before so 
overwhelming a force the Athenians retired within their 
city. But their fleet, under Pericles, was abroad, and ra- 
vaged all the coast of Peloponnesus, compelling the allies to 
return and defend their own (431). 

35. Plague at Athens; Death of Pericles (428). — Mean- 
while a plague had broken out in Athens among the multi- 
tude confined there. Pericles himself on his return fell a 
victim to it, while the Lacedasinonians again entered and 
ravaged the country. Platasa, with a force of five hundred 
men, held out against them for three years (430-427). 
Famine having reduced the garrison to the last extrem- 
ity, they resolved to cut their way through the army of 
the enemy. Favored by darkness, those of them who were 
courageous enough to dare the attempt effected their es- 
cape. The others surrendered and were basely slain. 

38. Aleibiades. — The war had now lasted ten years, and 
both sides were weakened by their losses. A suspension of 
hostilities was agreed upon. After a year this was broken 
(420) by the action of Aleibiades, a young Athenian noble of 
extraordinary gifts but extraordinary rashness and contempt 
for conventionalities. Full of youthful ambition and natu- 
rally restless, he persuaded the Athenians to break the peace. 
Under his guidance they engaged at once in a double war 
with Sparta and with Syracuse. 

37. Syracuse was one of the most powerful cities of the 
time. Aleibiades found an easy pretext for fitting out an 
expedition .against it under the joint command of himself, 
Nicias, and Lamachus. His brilliant audacity just suited 
the ambitious and versatile temper of the Athenians. Land- 
ing on the Sicilian coast, he took the city of Catana by sur- 
prise. He was at once recalled to Athens to answer a charge 

35. What became of Pericles ? Describe the siege of Platsea. 36. Who broke 
the peace ? What was the character of Aleibiades ? 37. What place did the 
Athenians choose for attack ? How was Aleibiades treated? The result? 



68 HlSTOR Y OF THE WORLD, [b.c. 430-406 

of having mutilated the statues of Mercury. Instead of re- 
turning he escaped and joined the Lacedaemonians, to the 
injury of his own people. 

38. Siege of Syracuse. — Nicias, succeeding to the com- 
mand, blockaded Syracuse and almost surrounded it on 
the land side. The city was on the point of surrendering 
when G-ylippus, a Spartan general, arrived and gave new 
courage to the besieged. He offered INfiicias five days to 
depart. The offer was met by scornful silence. Gylippus 
stormed a fort near the city, which gave him an oppor- 
tunity of fortifying it beyond the lines of the besieging 
force. 

39. Demosthenes was sent out from Athens with an 
army to aid Mcias. He signalized his arrival by an am- 
bitious night-attack, which resulted in a panic of his own 
troops, and the whole Athenian army with their generals 
was finally compelled to surrender. The generals were 
condemned to death and the troops to barbarous suffer- 
ings. 

40. Eecall of Alcibiades. — The Athenians now saw their 
mistake, and in their extremity recalled Alcibiades. Be- 
fore returning he joined the Athenian fleet near the 
Asiatic coast and inflicted two severe blows on the Lace- 
daemonians, slaying their admiral and destroying their 
army (408). His return became a triumph (407). Dur- 
ing his absence Antiochus, one of his lieutenants, at- 
tacked the Lacedaemonian fleet and suffered a severe 
defeat (406). The Athenians, ever fickle, blamed Alci- 
biades for this reverse. He was deprived of the com- 
mand and ten generals were appointed in his place. 

41. Athens exhausted herself in fitting out anew one 
hundred and fifty vessels. Callicratidas, a man of fine 

38. Who relieved Syracuse ? 39. Who went to the aid of Nicias ? How did 
the siege end 1 40. Why was Alcibiades recalled 1 Describe his return. Why 
was ho again disgraced ? 



b.c. 406-404] Greece. 69 

honor and great valor, was the Spartan commander. He 
gave battle in face of overwhelming odds, was defeated, 
slain, and his fleet destroyed (406). Owing to stress of 
weather the sacred duty of burying the Athenian dead 
was not complied with. This gave great offence at 
Athens, and the victorious generals were, unheard, con- 
demned to death and executed by decree of the assembly 
of the people. 

42. Lysander. — Lysander, a brave and competent gene- 
ral, was given command of the Lacedaemonian fleet (405). 
He surprised the Athenians at the mouth of the iEgos 
Potamos, in the Hellespont, took their fleet, dispersed 
their army, and captured three thousand prisoners with 
their generals. In an hour he had destroyed the power 
of Athens and put an end to the Peloponnesian war, 
which had lasted twenty-seven years. 

43. Taking of Athens (404). — There was nothing left to 
the Athenians but surrender. The Lacedaemonians re- 
fused to destroy a city which had rendered such services 
to Greece. The fortifications of the Piraeus were demol- 
ished ; the Athenians delivered up all their ships save 
twelve, engaged to confine themselves to the limits of 
Attica and follow the Lacedaemonians wherever the latter 
wished to lead them. 

44. Artaxerxes II. (404-362). — After a series of dis- 
turbances in Persia the throne was filled towards the 
close of the Peloponnesian war by Artaxerxes II., sur- 
narned Mnemon because of his wonderful memory. To 
his brother, Cyrus the Younger, was given the govern- 
ment of Asia Minor. Cyrus aimed at supreme jwwer. 
With an army of one hundred thousand men and thir- 
teen thousand Greeks he marched from Sardis to Susa 

41. What befell Callicratidas 1 Why were the Athenian generals condemned ? 
42. Who put an end to the Peloponnesian war 1 In what way ? 43. What be- 
came of Athens 1 44. Who reigned in Persia at this time ? Who in Asia Minor 1 



70 History of the World. [ b .c. 404-400 

against his elder brother. The opposing forces met at 
Cunaxa, in Babylonia, and Cyrus was slain, after fighting 
his way to Artaxerxes and wounding him. The Greeks, 
however, sustained the fight and defeated the host opposed 
to them ; but, learning of the death of Cyrus, they re- 
treated. Tissaphernes, the general of Artaxerxes, fearing 
to attack them, ensnared their chief officers by perfidy 
and put them to death. 

45. The Ten Thousand (401-400).— The Greeks were in 
a country unknown to them and fifteen hundred miles 
from Greece. Xenophon, afterwards the historian, who 
was an officer in the expedition, revived their courage 
and prevailed on them to appoint new leaders. Himself 
and four others were chosen. They resolved to fight and 
march their way back to their own country. 

46. Then ensued one of the most memorable retreats 
in history. Harassed by the pursuing Persians, by the in- 
habitants of the territory through which they passed, by 
the natural difficulties of an unknown country, they made 
their way steadily through all obstacles and after a march 
of seven months they reached the sea — the Hellespont. 

47. Socrates; the Thirty Tyrants (404). — Socrates, the 
instructor of Plato and the friend of Alcibiades, had long 
moved Athens by the novelty and power of his teachings. 
His life was in contrast to his surroundings. He was 
not, in the Athenian sense, a polished man. He had 
fought in the wars, lived a laborious life, and con- 
temned worldly riches and ambition. But his intellect 
was of an extraordinarily keen, powerful, and truth-seek- 
ing kind. Nothing could shake his tranquil soul, not 
even the temper of a shrewish wife — Xantippe. 

48. After the surrender of Athens Lysander established 

Describe the battle of Cunaxa. What befell the Greeks ? 45. Who assumed' 
command of the Greeks ? 46. Describe the march of the ten thousand. 47. 
Describe the character and work of Socrates. 



b.c. 400-394] Greece. 71 

there a council of thirty tyrants. This was opposed to 
the government of. the people, and the tyrants became 
odious oppressors. Socrates alone stood up and denounced 
them. After eight months of this Thrasybulus, an Athe- 
nian of capacity and merit, overthrew the tyrants and 
delivered the country from their yoke. 

49. Socrates especially loved to be among and teach the 
Athenian youth, and the youths loved to follow and lis- 
ten to him. So truth-loving a nature and bold a speaker 
necessarily begot enemies. They charged him with cor- 
rupting the youth and introducing new gods. His de- 
fence of himself was very noble, calm, and complete. 
But he was condemned to drink the hemlock poison, and 
obeyed the sentence of his unjust judges (400). He be- 
lieved in an immortal soul and in the providence of one 
supreme and beneficent being ; yet he outwardly followed 
the customary worship of his country, which was idol- 
atry. 

50. Sparta leads. — After the fall of Athens Sparta was 
the first power in Greece. She sent Agesilaus, a general 
deformed in stature and of mean appearance but of great 
ability, to assist the Greek colonies in Asia Minor against 
the Persians. He conquered Asia Minor. To arrest his 
progress Artaxerxes bribed the Greeks to revolt. Athens, 
Thebes, and Corinth leagued against Sparta. Agesilaus 
returned from Asia and defeated the allies at Coronea, 
in Boeotia (394). But Conon, the Athenian, defeated the 
Lacedaemonian fleet near Cnidus. 

51. Aided by Persian gold and the Persian fleet, Conon 
soon rebuilt the walls of Athens, and the Lacedaemo- 
nians in alarm signed a humiliating treaty, by which all 
the Greek cities in Asia Minor were ceded to the Per- 

48. How was Athens governed at this time ? Who overthrew the tyrants 'I 
49. Why was Socrates condemned? 50. Who was Agesilans? Describe his 
achievements. 51. Who rebuilt Athens ? What treaty was signed with Persia ? 



72 History of the World. [ b .c. 394-363 

sian king and liberty was given to all the cities of Greece. 
Thus Sparta remained in the ascendant. 

52. Pelopidas and Epaminondas. — Sparta sought to in-, 
crease her power by possessing the strong citadel of 
Thebes, which she effected by fraud (382). Thebes had 
at the time two great men — Pelopidas and Epaminondas. 
Pelopidas, a young man, spent much of his wealth in as- 
sisting the poor and lightening their hard lot. Epami- 
nondas was poor from choice, and was a singular exam- 
ple of every virtue in those clays. 

53. Pelopidas rallied the Theban fugitives, and, entering 
the city at night, surprised the Spartan magistrates and 
slew them. Next day they compelled the garrison of the 
citadel to capitulate just as succor arrived at the gates. 

54. Battle of Leuctra (371). — War ensued, and the The- 
bans proved victorious. At last the Lacedgemonians sent 
an army of twenty-four thousand men, under the com- 
mand of one of the kings, Cleombrotus, to ravage Bceo- 
tia. Epaminondas with six thousand men marched to 
meet them and gave them battle near Leuctra (371). 
After a most obstinate conflict, in which Cleombrotus 
was slain, Epaminondas gained the victory. Following up - 
the foe, he re-established the Messenians in their country 
and invaded Laconia. Agesilaus was besieged in his capi- 
tal, and for the first time the Spartan women saw "the 
smoke of an enemy's camp." 

55. Trial of the Theban Generals; Battle of Mantinea 
(363). — On their victorious return the Theban generals were 
arraigned on the charge of having kept the command longer 
than allowed by law. Pelopidas barely escaped ; but the 
noble eloquence of Epaminondas not only cleared him but 
brought him additional glory. War with Sparta soon broke 

52. Who were the Theban leaders ? Describe their character. 53. How was 
Sparta taken'? 54. Describe the battle of Leuctra and its results. 55. How 
were the Theban generals rewarded? Describe the progress of the war. 



-B.C. 363-360] Ma CUD ONI a . 73 

out again. Epaminondas, preparing to besiege Mantinea, 
learned tliat Agesilaus was coming to its relief . He let him 
come, and, turning aside, made for Sparta, which Agesilaus, 
warned in time, hardly succeeded in reaching before him. 
Epaminondas returned to Mantinea and the Spartans fol- 
lowed. 

56. In the battle that ensued the Theban general was 
again victorious, but fell in the hour of victory (363). Pe- 
lopidas had fallen in like manner a year before ; and with 
these two men, who had created the power of Thebes, it 
fell. But Sparta was broken for ever. 



CHAPTER VII. 
MACEDONIA : EMPIRE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

From the time that Macedonia enters into Grecian life its history comprises 
three periods : 1. The foundation of Macedonian power by Philip; 2. The con- 
quests and empire of Alexander the Great; 3. The dismemberment of that 
empire. 

SECTION I. Philip (380-337 B.C.) 

1. Rise of Macedonia. — While the Grecian states were for 
ever engaged in internecine strife the kingdom of Mace- 
donia, in the north of Greece, had been slowly solidifying 
into a strong power. It was an hereditary kingdom found- 
ed by the Corinthians about eight hundred years before 
Christ. It was unnoticed in history until the reign of 
Philip, a disciple of Epaminondas. He was a man of 
deep schemes and firm resolve, and allowed no scruples 
of conscience to stand between him and his purpose. He 
soon lifted his obscure little kingdom into one of the 
powers of the world. 

56. What great battle ended it? Who fell there? What was the result? 
1. Describe the growth of Macedonia. Who first brought it into prominence ? 
What was Philip's character ? 



74 History of the World. [b.c. 360-333 

2. Birth of Alexander (356). — Philip had a- son, to whom 
he gave the name of Alexander. The young prince was 
given Aristotle, the philosopher, as tutor. Philip, who 
highly esteemed learning, begged the philosopher to rear 
his boy to be a successor worthy of himself and a king 
worthy of Macedonia. 

3. Sacred "War (355-345). — A case against the Phocians, 
who inhabited the territories adjacent to Delphi, was 
brought before the Amphictyonic council. The Phocians 
were pronounced sacrilegious and compelled to pay a heavy 
fine. They refused, and all Greece was drawn into the quar- 
rel that ensued. 

4. Philip alone remained neutral,, and, while the others 
were engaged in strife, quietly widened his own frontiers and 
subjected Thrace. When he thought the Greeks sufficient- 
ly weakened he declared against the Phocians, secured the 
passes of Thermopylae, and entered their country. Easily 
overcoming them, he returned with all the honor and profit 
of closing a war in which he had taken no risks. 

5. Second Sacred War (338) ; Demosthenes (385-322).— 
Philip held Thermopylae, the key of Greece. Under pre- 
tence of avenging ail insult to Apollo he took Elatea, the 
chief city of Phocis (338). Athens and Thebes were now 
exposed to the powerful monarch, and were only saved by 
the eloquence of Demosthenes. Demosthenes was the most 
celebrated orator of antiquity, and probably of all time. 
He saw the designs of Philip, and assailed them unceas- 
ingly with all his power in his famous Philippics and 
Olyntliiacs. These orations did more injury to Philip 
than all the fleets and armies brought against him. 

6. Battle of Cheeronea. — Demosthenes prevailed on the 
Athenians and Thebans to unite against the common foe. 

2. What was the name of Philip's son ? What famous tutor had ho 1 3. Give 
the origin of the Sacred war. 4. What part did Philip take ? 5. What great 
orator opposed him ? What were his orations called ? 



b.*:. 338-334] Empire of Alexander. 75 

Philip entered Boeotia and met the allies near Chseronea 
(338). Philip commanded the right, and gave the left to 
Alexander, then a youth of seventeen. The battle was 
most stubborn, but Alexander at length broke the " sacred 
band," Avhich was the flower of the Theban army. Philip at 
first was nearly defeated, but in the end his superior gene- 
ralship prevailed and the allies were totally routed. He 
used his victory wisely, and was made commander-in-chief 
of the republics' armies. While contemplating the conquest 
of Asia he was stabbed by one of his own subjects. 

SECTION II. Alexander the Great (336-323 B.C.) 

7. Defeat of the Greeks. — Alexander was twenty on as- 
cending the throne. He was faced by conspiracies among 
all those whom his father had subjected. The Greeks, 
urged by Demosthenes, formed a new league against the 
youth. Alexander gave them little time. He hurried to 
Thebes, defeated the Thebans with great slaughter, and 
levelled their city to the ground. 

8. Conquest of Asia. — This example terrified the rest. 
Alexander was proclaimed commander-in-chief of all the 
Greek forces. He hastened to set out. for Asia and fulfil 
his father's dream of conquest. At the Granicus, in Phry- 
gia, he was opposed by an army of one hundred thousand 
men. He crossed the stream and defeated the enemy, kill- 
ing their general. This left him master of the country 
(334). In a very short time he overran Asia- Minor, cap- 
turing all the chief cities, until he reached Tarsus, in Cili- 
cia, on the banks of the Cydnus. 

9. Battle of Issus. — Here he was seized with fever and 
came near death. Darius Codomannus, King of Persia, 
was approaching with a vast force of six hundred thousand 

6. Describe the battle of Cheeronea. What was Philip's fate ? 7. How did 
Alexander begin his reign ? 8. What great expedition did Alexander under- 
take ? Describe the battle of the Granicus, and its results. 



76 History of the World. [ b .c. 334-331 

men. The Macedonians were only forty thousand. Alex- 
ander recovered in time for battle, and, having taken up 
a most advantageous position at Issus, awaited the Per- 
sians. It was a battle between a compact army of veterans 
and an unwieldy mob badly led. Alexander's victory was 
complete. Among the captives taken were Sisygambis, 
mother of Darius, with his wife, two daughters, and his 
little son. They were treated by the conqueror with the 
greatest courtesy and respect. 

10. The Fall of Tyre. — Alexander now advanced into 
Syria and Phoenicia. Every city save Tyre opened its gates 
to the young monarch. Tyre held out against him for 
seven months, but was at length taken and all the brave 
inhabitants either slain or sold into slavery. Alexander 
was forgetting his magnanimity, and his conquests became 
too many to sustain with his early moderation. He march- 
ed against Jerusalem to avenge the attachment of the Jews 
to the Persian king ; but on entering the Holy City his heart 
was changed. He reverenced Jaddus, the venerable high- 
priest, and became a benefactor to the Jewish people. 

11. The March of Conquest. — He then turned to Egypt, 
where he was welcomed by the people. Here his pride 
overcame him. He wished to pass for a god, and with this 
view crossed the Libyan deserts to the temple of Jupiter- 
Ammon. There the priest declared him to be a son of 
Jupiter, and he built a great city on the northern coast of 
Egypt, to which he gave the name of Alexandria. 

12. Arbela (331). — Leaving Egypt, he crossed the Euphra- 
tes and Tigris, and again found himself opposed by Darius 
with an immense army. The Persians at first were suc- 
cessful; but Alexander's strategy turned the day, and Darius 
with difficulty escaped. This battle of Arbela gave Alex- 

9. Describe the battle of Issus. 10. What was the fate of Tyre ? Tell of 
Alexander's visit to Jerusalem. 11. What did he do in Egypt? 12. Describe 
the battle of Arbela. 



b.c. 331-827] Empire of Alexander. 77 

ander the empire of Asia and cost the Persians three 
hundred thousand men. 

13. Eall of Babylon and Persepolis. — Babylon and Susa 
now opened their gates to the conqueror. Defeating Ario- 
barzanes, he entered Persepolis, the capital, where he found 
immense treasures, which he distributed among his soldiers. 
Here in a drunken fit he set fire to the palace of Xerxes — 
a shameful act which he tried to undo when too late. 

14. Death of Darius. — Darius fled to Ecbatana, the capi- 
tal of Media. Alexander followed him up. Bessus, one 
of Darius's generals, took possession of the king's person. 
Darius refused to fly further, and Bessus, piercing him 
with arrows, left him dying on the field. Alexander ar- 
rived just as the unfortunate prince expired. He wept 
oyer his body and ordered a magnificent funeral. 

15. End of the Persian Empire. — With Darius ended 
the Persian Empire, which had lasted two hundred and 
eight years, from the taking of Babylon by Cyrus. Bes- 
sus, falling into Alexander's hands, was condemned to be 
quartered. Encamping on the Jaxartes, Alexander built 
the city of Alexandreschata to mark the limits of his Scy- 
thian expedition. 

16. Death of Clitus. — Having overcome all, Alexander 
now fell a victim to himself and yielded to foolish pride 
and debauchery. In a drunken brawl he slew Clitus, who 
saved his life at the Granicus, and to whom he was greatly 
attached. The treacherous act preyed upon him. The 
Macedonians began to murmur at the changed life of their 
king. To occupy them he turned to India to subjugate it. 

17. Alexander in India. — After a march of sixteen days 
he . arrived at the Indus. All the kings of the country 
save Porus came to offer their submission. Porus had an. 

13. What shameful act did Alexander commit at Persepolis ? 14. What befell 
Darius ? 15. What great empire ended with Darius 1 16. Describe the change 
in Alexander's character. 



78 History of the World. [ b .c. 327-823 

immense army, and was further protected by the Hydas- 
pes, a broad, deep, and rapid stream. Under cover of a 
storm Alexander succeeded in crossing and surprising Po- 
rus. The conqueror asked him how he would be treated. 
"Like a king," was the answer ; and his noble bearing so 
impressed Alexander that he gave him back his kingdom 
and added other provinces to it (327). 

18. Return to Babylon (325). — Alexander wished to cross 
the Granges, the largest river of India, and extend his con- 
quests, but his soldiers murmured and compelled him to 
return towards Babylon. The march back was one of 
dreadful hardshijjs. Once back in the fertile country of 
Babylon, he gave himself up to a seven days' debauch and 
his troops followed his example. 

19. Death of Alexander (323). — In Babylon Alexander 
found ambassadors awaiting him from all parts of the 
world to do him homage. His mind was filled with new 
schemes of conquest : of Arabia, the circumnavigation of 
Africa, and the subjugation of Europe. His health, how- 
ever, gave way under his repeated debauchery, and, full 
of his schemes, he passed away by fever, lingering a few 
days, long enough to feel and recognize the littleness of 
man before a superior power (323). 

SECTION III. Dismemberment of Alexander's Empire. 

20. Alexander's Successor. — Alexander left behind him 
the vastest empire ever known. He refused to name a 
successor. His brother, Philip Arickeus, a man of weak 
mind, was chosen king, and had as associate Alexander 
iEgus, the son of Eoxana, wife of Alexander. Perdiccas 
was appointed regent. The thirty generals divided up 
among themselves the provinces of the empire as satra- 

17. Who opposed Alexander in India? What befell Porus? 18. Why did 
Alexander return to Babylon 1 19. Who avraited him in Babylon ? What 
caused his death ? 20. What became of Alexander's empire ? 



b.c. 323-285] Egypt. 79 

pies. To Ptolemy fell Egypt ; to Antipater, Macedonia 
and Greece ; to Antigonus, Lydia, etc. 

21. Anarchy. — The death of Alexander was the signal 
for a series of revolt's, which were sternly quelled by the 
generals, especially one of the Greeks inspired by Demos- 
thenes, which resulted in their defeat and Demosthenes' 
death. The generals then fought among themselves, and 
for twenty- two years there was nothing but anarchy in the 
empire, which finally dissolved into four kingdoms : the 
kingdom of Thrace, which lasted only a short time ; the 
kingdom of Macedonia, of Egypt, and of Syria, the last 
being the largest and most powerful of the four. 



CHAPTEK VIII. 
STATES FORMED OUT OF ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE. 

The principal states formed from tlie breaking up of Alexander's empire 
were the kingdoms of Egj~pt, Syria, and Macedonia. The kingdom of Thrace 
disappeared with Lysimachus. 

SECTION I. Egypt under the Lagi (323-30 B.C.) 

1. Ptolemy I., Sotor (323-285).— Ptolemy I., surnamed 
Sotor, or Saviour, by the Khodians, founded the dynasty 
of the Lagi, so-called from Lagus, his father. Egypt fell 
to him, and he added to it Cyrenaica, the isle of Cyprus, 
and Phoenicia. He was an able, wise, and prudent prince, 
a lover of science and learning. He began the famous 
Alexandrian library. 

2. Ptolemy II. (285-247).— Ptolemy II. inherited his 
father's fine tastes, and completed in the first year of his 
reign the great light-house of Pharos, one of the wonders 

21. What ensued on the death of Alexander? How was his empire finally 
divided? 1. What dynasty did Ptolemy found? For what was he famous? 
2. What was the character of Ptolemy II. ? 



80 History of the World. [b.c. 285-205 

of the world. He added to the Alexandrian library, among 
other valuable works, a translation of the Old Testament 
from the Hebrew into Greek. The high-priest of the 
Jews sent the books and translators to assist him. They 
completed the version of the Old Testament known as 
the Septuagint. 

3. Ptolemy also, by means of a canal and the Nile, 
opened up communications between the Red Sea and the 
Mediterranean, making his kingdom the highway for the 
commerce of the East, and his capital, Alexandria, the 
general emporium of the world. The city became the cen- 
tre of learning, art, science, and luxury, and was adorned 
with splendid edifices. Its inhabitants were of three classes, 
the Egyptians, the mercenaries in the king's service, and 
the Alexandrians — a name given to strangers who settled 
there, and who were for the most part Greeks -or Jews. 

4. Ptolemy III. (247-222). — Ptolemy III. began his reign 
by a war to avenge the death of his sister, Berenice, 
Queen of Syria, who was murdered at the instigation of 
her rival, Laodice. He overran Syria, put Laoclice to 
death, and returned with an immense booty. Passing 
through Jerusalem, he offered rich sacrifices to the true 
God for his victory. He was the last of his dynasty who 
showed any virtue. 

5. Ptolemy IV. (222-205).— There was war between An- 
tiochus the Great of Syria and Ptolemy IV. for the re- 
covery of the provinces wrested from Syria in the last 
reign. The final conflict came at Raphia, which was won 
by Ptolemy after a desperate battle. Palestine and part 
of Syria thus fell to Egypt. Ptolemy then gave himself 
up to a life of debauchery and crime that ended in his 
thirty-seventh year. 

"What famous literary work is connected with Ptolemy II. "? 3. What does 
commerce owe to Ptolemy ? Describe Alexandria. 4. Sketch the reign of Pto- 
lemy III. 5. Sketch the reign of Ptolemy IV. 



b.c. 205-48] ' Egypt. 81 

6. Ptolemy V. (205-181) ; Ptolemy VI. (181-146).— Ptole- 
my V., who succeeded, is chiefly known for his perfidy 
and cruelty. He was poisoned. His son and successor 
made war on Antiochus Epiphanes. Antiochus conquered 
Egypt and took Ptolemy prisoner. The Egyptians then 
set his brother on the throne. Under the pretence of re- 
establishing Ptolemy VI. Antiochus again invaded Egypt, 
and would haye taken Alexandria had not an embassy 
from Eome defeated his plans and caused him to return 
to Syria. 

7. Ptolemy VII. (146-117).— Both Ptolemies now agreed 
to make an equal division of their country. The one held 
Egypt and the isle of Cyprus, the other (Ptolemy VII.) 
Libya and Cyrenaica. They soon quarrelled' and conquer- 
ed each other in turn, but at length became reconciled 
by the generosity of the elder Ptolemy. "When he died 
his brother remained sole master of Egypt. Like the 
others, he gave himself up to frightful excesses until his 
death (11?). 

8. Ptolemy XL (80-52); Ptolemy XII. and Cleopatra 
(52-48). — Two others followed in turn, remarkable only 
for their vices. In the year 80 Ptolemy XL, called Au- 
letes, or "the piper," ascended the throne. Eome had 
now risen in the "Western world, and Ptolemy purchased 
the protection of Caesar and Pompey at a price that bur- 
dened his people. He had to fly to Home, and then a 
Roman army came to re-establish him. At his death he 
left the crown conjointly to his son and daughter, Ptole- 
my and Cleopatra, whom he recommended to the care of 
the Roman people, especially of Pompey, then first citi- 
zen of the republic. 

9. The two quarrelled, and Cleopatra was driven away. 

6. What befell Ptolemy Y. ? What Ptolemy VI. ? Who conquered Egypt ? 
7. Describe the quarrels between the Ptolemies. 8. Sketch the reign of Pto- 
lemy Auletes. To whom did he leave his crown ? 



82 History of the World. [ b .c. 48-30 

Pompey espoused her cause, but, defeated by Caesar at 
Pharsalia, he fled to Egypt and was slain by Ptolemy. 
Caesar next fell under the influence of Cleopatra, placed 
her on the throne, and slew Ptolemy in battle (48). 

10. Ptolemy XIII. (48-44) and Cleopatra (48-30).— 
Caesar compelled Cleopatra to reign conjointly with her 
younger brother, Ptolemy, a mere child. She had her 
brother poisoned and reigned alone, until Mark Antony, 
the Eoman general, came. Him she married. To marry 
her Antony repudiated his wife, the sister of Octavius Cae- 
sar. The Komans returned. Antony, deserted by Cleo- 
patra at the battle of Actium (31), was wounded to 
death. She then strove to win over Octavius, but, finding- 
it impossible and disdaining to enter Borne a captive, she 
ended her life by the poisonous bite of an asp. 

11. With Cleopatra ended the dynasty (30 B.C.), which 
had lasted two hundred and ninety-three years after the 
death of Alexander the Great. Egypt became a province 
of the Eoman Empire until the middle of the seventh cen- 
tury a.d., when it was conquered by the Saracens. 

SECTION II. Syria under the Seleucidsa (301-64 B.C.) 

12. Seleucus I. (312-280).— To Seleucus fell the govern- 
ment of Babylon. He extended his kingdom to the Indus 
and took the title of king (306). The victory of Ipsus 
(301), gained by Seleucus and Ly si madras over Demetrius 
and Antigonus, gave to Seleucus all Asia as far as Mount 
Taurus. Master of Syria, he then built the city of Antioch 
on the Orontes, and made it his capital. It was named 
after his father, Antiochus. 

13. Thus far he had been the ally of Lysimachus, King 
of Thrace. But when both were over eighty years old 

9. Who befriended Cleopatra? 10-11. Describe relations between Antony 
and Cleopatra. How did Cleopatra die? What became of Egypt? 12. Over 
what kingdom did Seleucus reign? What city did he build? 



b.c. 312-222] Syria. S3 

they quarrelled. Lysimachus marched an army as far as 
Cyropedion, in Phrygia, where he was defeated and slain. 
Seleucus then added to his kingdom all Asia Minor, Thrace, 
and Macedonia. His empire now, omitting Egypt, was as 
vast as that of Alexander. The sole survivor of Alexan- 
der's generals, he was assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus, 
whom he had befriended, while in the act of offering a 
solemn sacrifice of thanksgiving to the gods. Ptolemy 
thereupon caused himself to be proclaimed King of Thrace 
and Macedonia. 

14. Antiochus I. (280-260) ; Antiochus II (260-247).— 
The son of Seleucus succeeded him on the throne of Syria 
under the title of Antiochus I. He lost a part of Asia 
Minor, and was succeeded by Antiochus II., surnamed 
"Theos," or god. The "god's" reign was a very unfortu- 
nate one. "While at war with Egypt the Parthians shook 
off the Syrian yoke and chose as leader Arsaces, a man of 
obscure birth but of ability and valor. Thus originated the 
kingdom of Parthia. One after another the provinces re- 
volted, and soon all beyond the Tigris were lost to Syria. 

15. Antiochus was obliged to sue for peace with Egypt. 
The peace involved the repudiation of Laodice, his wife, in 
favor of Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy. On the death of 
Ptolemy Antiochus took back his wife. She poisoned him 
and murdered Berenice. This led to the war with Ptolemy 
III. , the death of Laodice, and the conquest of a great part 
of Syria from her son, Seleucus II. (247-225). His son, 
Seleucus III., reigned only three years when he was poi- 
soned (222). 

16. Antioelras the Great (222-186). — Antiochus, the sec- 
ond son of Seleucus II., ascended the throne when very 
young. He inherited the qualities of the founder of his 

13. With whom did Seleucus quarrel? How did he extend his empire? 
What befell him ? 14. What happened under his successors ? 15 What led 
to the war with Egypt, and how did the war result ? 



84 History of the World. [ b .c. 222-187 

dynasty. At first he met with reverses and was beaten at 
Eaphia by the Egyptians (217). Shaking off his surround- 
ings, he acted for himself, and the result soon justified his 
confidence. He checked revolt at home with a resolute 
hand, and then led his armies eastward to win back the 
lost provinces. 

17. He failed to subdue Parthia, but he stripped it of 
its acquisitions and confined it to its own narrow bounds. 
Thence he advanced to the Indus and established his au- 
thority everywhere. After seven years spent in these expe- 
ditions the young prince returned to Antioch a conqueror 
(205). He next turned his arms against the Jews. But 
they, glad to part from Egypt, easily yielded him their 
allegiance. 

18. War with the Romans. — He now undertook the con- 
quest of Asia Minor. The free Greek cities that composed 
it sought the protection of the Eomans. Antiochus had 
been encouraged in his ambition by a visit from Hanni- 
bal, the great Carthaginian, who represented to him that 
the Eomans could only be conquered in Italy. Hannibal 
was at this time a fugitive and offered to conduct the ex- 
pedition. 

19. Entering Greece, Antiochus was met and defeated at 
Thermopylae. He fled into Asia (191), closely pursued by 
Lucius Scipio. Another battle was fought near Magnesia, 
in Lydia, which was won by the Eomans notwithstanding 
the valor of Antiochus. To obtain peace he was compelled 
to cede to Eome all the provinces of Asia on that side of 
Mount Taurus, and defray all the expenses of the war. 

20. When the time came to pay he had no money, and 
to obtain it attempted to plunder the rich temple of Perse- 
polis, but was caught in the act and killed by the people 

16. How did Antiochus the Great begin his reign? 17. Sketch his conquests. 
18. What led him to war with the Romans ? 19. Describe the war and its re- 
sults. 20. What befell Antiochus ? What occurred in the reign of Seleucus II. I 



b.c. 187-65] Macedonia. 85 

(187). His son Seleucus succeeded, but his reign is only- 
famed for the disastrous attempt to plunder the Temple 
of Jerusalem by Heliodorus, one of his generals (176). 

21. Antioclms IV. (174-164). — Seleucus was succeeded by 
Antioclms, an ambitious and daring but otherwise con- 
temptible man. He would have achieved the conquest of 
Egypt had not the Eomans prevented him (168). He then 
turned his fury on the Jews and began a- persecution that 
was stopped by the heroic defence of the Machabees. His 
generals defeated in Judea, and himself in Persia, he was 
stricken by a frightful malady that made death a relief 
(164). 

22. Antioclms VIII (123-97) and Cleopatra.— After many 
revolutions the crown finally fell to Antioclms Grypus, so- 
called from the- size of his nose. Cleopatra, his mother, at- 
tempted to govern in his name. Her hands were already 
stained with murder, and when her son resisted she tried 
to murder him also. Presenting him a poisoned cup, he 
compelled her to drink it herself. Her death rid Syria of 
a monster (120). 

23. After the death of Grypus Syria was torn with con- 
tentions, until as a relief she declared allegiance to Ti- 
granes, King of Armenia. He abandoned her to preserve 
his own states, and finally Pompey reduced Syria to a Eo- 
man province (65 b.c ) two hundred and thirty-seven years 
after the foundation of the kingdom. 

SECTION III. Kingdom of Macedonia (319-148 B.C.) and Greece (301 

146 B.C.) 

24. Cassander (319-298) ; End of the Family of Alex- 
ander (294). — Cassander occupied Macedonia at the death 
of his father, Antipator, and assumed the title of king in 

21. Sketch the reign of Antioclms IV. 22. What ensued on his death ? Tell 
of Antiochus Grypus and his mother. 23. To whom did Syria transfer her al- 
legiance 1 What did she finally become 1 



86 History of the World. [ b .c. 319-242 

306. The battle of Ipsus secured to him his kingdom. 
His two children, born of Thessalonica, sister to Alexander 
the Great, disputed for the crown, and both perished in 
the struggle. Thus ended the line of Philip and Alex- 
ander. 

25. Demetrius I. (294-286). — One of Cassander's sons 
called to his aid Demetrius, son of Antigonus, who, after 
his father's defeat at Ipsus, held several cities in Greece. 
Demetrius murdered the prince, deposed his brother, 
and caused himself to be proclaimed king of Macedonia 
(294). He now thought of reconquering all that his fa- 
ther had lost in Asia ; but his army, won over by Pyrrhus, 
King of Epirus, revolted. He set out for Asia with a 
handful of desperate followers. After many wanderings 
and privations he finally surrendered to Seleucus I., King 
of Syria. He was well treated, but after three years of 
inaction and free-living the ambitious and once brilliant 
"taker of cities" died (283). 

26. Antigonus (286-242). — Antigonus, son of Demetri- 
us, tried to move all hearts for the liberation of his father. 
He offered all that he had and himself as hostage to Se- 
leucus for his father's release. Meanwhile Pyrrhus, master 
of Macedonia, was dethroned by Lysimachus (286) ; Ly- 
simachus in turn by Seleucus I. (282) ; and finally Seleu- 
cus was assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus (280). 

27. In the same year Ceraunus fell in battle against the 
Gauls, who had pillaged the temple of Delphi. Antigonus 
seized his opportunity and reconcpiered Macedonia (278). 
The death of Pyrrhus (272) relieved him of all competi- 
tors, and thenceforward he reigned peacefully in Macedo- 
nia. He occupied a part of Greece and became one of the 
most powerful monarchs of the time. He left Macedonia 

24. Who became Mng of Macedonia ? How did the line of Alexander end ? 
25. Sketch the career of Demetrius I. 26. Tell the story of Antigonus. What 
happened in Macedonia ? 27. How did Antigonus come to the throne ? 



b.c. 242-221] Greece. 87 

to his family, which, under them, formed an independent 
kingdom. 

28. Situation of Greece. — From the time of Alexander 
Greece was attached to Macedonia. Two leagues were 
formed in it : the JEtolian, comprising the cities of iEtolia, 
and the Adman, comprising several cities of Achaia. The 
first was a vain effort to debar Demetrius II. (242-232), 
son of Antigonus, who had seized Boeotia, from Central 
Greece. 

29. The second called the Macedonians in Peloponnesus 
against the city of Sparta. Sparta was now shorn of her 
ancient power. The laws of Lycurgus had been forgotten ; 
riches had crept in, and with them luxury and enervation. 
The race had grown degenerate. Agis, one of the Spar- 
tan kings, strove to introduce reform and restore the Ly- 
curgan code. But he perished at the hands of his fellow- 
citizens (240). 

30. Cleomenes, his brother-in-law, succeeded. He set the 
example of himself giving up all his goods for the public 
welfare. His example was contagious and the old order 
was restored. But a war against the Achasans ruined all 
(228). 

31. Antigonus (232-221). — To his nephew Antigonus 
(Doson) Demetrius II. had left the care of his son Philip, 
still a child. Antigonus seized the throne, which he oc- 
cupied for five years. The Achaeans called him to their as- 
sistance against Cleomenes. He defeated Cleomenes at Sel- 
lasia. Cleomenes, returning to Sparta, advised the people 
to receive Antigonus, and himself in despair sailed for 
Egypt, where he was imprisoned by the king until his 
death. Antigonus gave the Spartans their liberty. 

32. Philip (221-178).— At the death of Antigonus Doson 

28. What were the iEtolian and Acheean leagues ? 29. Describe the condition 
of Sparta at this time. 30. Who restored order % 31. Describe the struggle be- 
tween Cleomenes and Antigonus. 



88 History of the World. [b.c. 321-148 

the crown fell to Philip, son of Demetrius II. Philip's early 
life was full of the best promise, but prosperity ruined him. 
He entered into a league with Hannibal and the Cartha- 
ginians against the Romans (216). The Romans first dis- 
posed of Carthage and then turned to Philip. They sent 
Quintus Flaminius with a large army to invade Macedonia. 
Defeated at Cynocephalse, the king was obliged to sue for 
peace at the cost of all his vessels, his son as hostage, and 
the evacuation of all the cities of Greece which he had 
captured (197). 

33. The Greeks freed. — At the Isthmian games Quintus 
proclaimed to the assembled Greeks that the Roman Senate 
and people restored to them their liberty and their own 
laws. The announcement was received with universal joy. 
The Romans thus placed a barrier between themselves and 
Macedonia, and sowed new seeds of dissension among the 
Greeks themselves. 

34. Philip could not forgive the Romans. His son De- 
metrius so won upon them that they sent him back free 
to his father. This only rendered him odious in his fa- 
ther's sight, who preferred his other son, Perseus. At the 
instance of the latter his elder brother was poisoned by 
his father. 

35. Perseus (178-168). — Perseus succeeded to his father's 
throne and hatred of the Romans. After many prepara- 
tions he declared war. But his avarice lost him his best 
auxiliaries, the Gauls, and he met with a disastrous defeat 
from the Romans near Pydna. He was afterwards captur- 
ed and carried to Rome to grace the conqueror's triumph. 
There he died (167). Macedonia was first declared free, 
but later on reduced to a Roman province (148) one hun- 
dred and seventy-five years after the death of Alexander. 

32. Who succeeded Antigonus 1 What alliance did ho make ? What was the 
result ? 33. What was the Roman policy with the Greeks ? 34. What of Philip 
and his sons ? 35. What heeame of Perseus and Macedonia ? 



b.c. 280-206] Greece. 89 

36. The Achaean League (280). — The Achaean league 
drew allies to it by its reputation for honesty and jus- 
tice. Aratus, who had induced Sicyon (251) to join the 
league, was soon after chosen general. He wrested the 
Corinthian citadel, which was the key of the Peloponnesus, 
from the Macedonians by an extraordinary act of daring 
and skill. This brought Corinth into the league (244). 
The year following he restored freedom to several cities of 
the Peloponnesus which were under the sway of tyrants. 

37. Aratus. — He made the mistake, however, of warring 
upon the Lacedaemonians, who were willing to enter the 
league provided Cleomenes, their king, was chosen chief. 
This Aratus refused, and war ensued. Suffering repeated 
defeats, he made the further mistake of calling in Antigo- 
nus Doson to his aid. Antigonus defeated Cleomenes, but 
in reward for his services took back the citadel of Cor- 
inth and had himself appointed general of the league, 
which was equivalent to making them subject to Macedo- 
nia. 

38. Philopcemen. — Philopcemen, a native of Megalopolis* 
had distinguished himself greatly at the battle of Sellasia, 
though only twenty at the time. He was appointed com- 
mander-in-chief of the Achaeans. They were suffering from 
an invasion by Machanidas, King of Sparta, who wished to 
subject the Peloponnesus,, and had advanced to Mantinea. 
There Philopcemen gave battle, and his skill and cool- 
ness turned threatened disaster into a great victory. He 
slew the king with his oavii hand (206). 

39. STabis. — Nabis succeeded Machanidas, and the Spar- 
tans groaned under his tyranny. He was defeated in bat- 
tle by the Achaeans, and, returning to Sparta, was slain 
by his own people. Philopcemen, hastening to Sparta, in- 

36-37. Why did the Achsean league draw allies to it ? Outline the history of 
Aratus. What of his war with the Lacedemonians ? 38. What occurred at 
Mantinea ? 39. What of Nabis ? 



90 History of the World. [bc. 191-146 

duced tlie citizens to enter the league (191). At the age 
of seventy he was made prisoner by the Messenians and 
basely put to death. He was mourned as "the last of the 
Greeks" (183). 

40. Some time after his death the Achaean league con- 
tinued the leading power in Greece. Athens and Thebes 
had sunk into unimportance. Dissensions arose, however ; 
the Eomans came in, and, under Mummius, crushed tbem 
at Leucopetra. Diaeus, the Achaean general, perished by 
his own hand after slaying his wife and children. Corinth 
was given up to fire and pillage (146) ; every man found 
in it was put to the sword, and the women and children 
were sold into slavery. The Achaean league was dissolved ; 
the walls of the confederate cities were destroyed, and 
Greece became the Eoman province of Achaia. 

41. Grecian Art and Literature. — The world owes more to 
the literature of Greece than to that of any other people. 
In poetry, philosophy, history, rhetoric, and mathematical 
science the Greeks are unsurpassed ; while the works of their 
sculptors are, even in their fragments, the wonder and the 
envy of all time. There is no greater epic than Homer's 
Iliad; no higher drama than the drama of .ZEschylus 
and Sophocles, Euripides and Aristophanes. Socrates in- 
spired the philosophy to which Plato gave expression, and 
Aristotle gave everlasting fame to logic. Thucydides, 
Herodotus, and Xenophon are models for historians. The 
orations of Demosthenes were never equalled. To Euclid 
we owe the science of geometry. There is no branch 
in literature where the Greeks do not stand unrivalled. 
Grecian refinement in manners, art, and literature attain- 
ed its zenith in the brilliant age of' Pericles, at which 
time Athens became the intellectual centre of the states. 

What was the end of PhilopcBmen ? 40. What occurred at Leucopetra ? 
What was the fate of Corinth ? What did Greece heeome ? 41. In what did 
the Greeks excel ? Mention some of the most eminent names. 



EOMAN HISTOEY. 



THE MONARCHY. 



CHAPTER I. 
SECTION I. Romulus and his first Three Successors (753-616 B.C.) 

1. Foundation of Home ; its earliest Inhabitants. — The 

city of Eome on the Tiber was called after its founder, 
Konmlus (b.c. 753), reputed to be a descendant of iEneas. 
He divided the Roman territory into three portions : one 
he consecrated to the support of religion and its ministers, 
another to the wants of the state, and a third he divided 
among his companions. These with their children formed 
the true Roman people, and were called patricians. The 
other inhabitants of the city were those who chose it as 
their residence. They were called plebeians and had only 
the right of freedom, the patricians having control over all 
the affairs of state. 

2. Romulus divided the people into three tribes, each 
comprising ten curim of one hundred and ten men. These 
assembled in the forum, or public place, to select their 
magistrates, make laws, declare war or peace, and deliver 
judgment, against which there was no appeal. Many of 
the plebeians chose them for patrons, becoming their clients. 
These relations involved mutual obligations, clientage being 
really a sort of vassalage. 

3. The first Government. — Romulus chose a hundred of 

1. Who founded Eome? How was Rome divided? Describe the social divi- 
sions of the Eomans. 2. What was a curia ? Where did the curice assemble, and 
for what purpose ? Describe the difference between patrons and clients. 

91 



92 History of the World. [ b .c. 753-714 

the more distinguished heads of families to deliberate on 
public affairs and assist him in the government. This was 
called the senate, or council of the ancients. From it were 
chosen the principal civil and military officers. As mem- 
bers died out new names were added to the list, whence 
the title "conscript fathers." As the state grew Eomulus 
increased the number of senators to two hundred. Later 
on, under Tarquin the Elder, they were increased to three 
hundred, and to a thousand in the last days of the re- 
public. Eomulus established a body-guard of three hun- 
dred horsemen. This was the origin of a third order, the 
equestrian, or knights, coming between the patricians and 
plebeians. 

4. War with the Sabines. — Under the able rule of Eomu- 
lus the city rapidly grew in power. It consisted for the 
most part of a band of resolute men. These needed wives. 
Eomulus sent to the neighboring city of the Sabines to 
contract matrimonial alliances. The proposal was received 
with scorn. So Eomulus captured the Sabine maidens by 
stratagem. War ensued, and was finally put an end to 
by the Sabine women rushing between their husbands and 
their relatives and reconciling both. The Romans and 
Sabines then became one people, with Rome for capital. 
After many other successes Eomulus was finally slain by 
the senators, either through jealousy of his power or be- 
cause of his despotism. 

5. BTuma Pompilius (714-672) and his Laws. — For a 
year the senate governed, and then chose Numa Pompi- 
lius, of Sabine origin, for king. He was renowned for his 
wisdom and humanity. He cultivated the finer quali- 
ties of his people, inculcated morality, helped industry, and 
punished idleness. He was the real founder of the Roman 

3. Describe the senate and its office. How did the senate vary'? Who were 
the knights? 4. How did the Romans win their brides? 5. Who succeeded 
Romulus? For what was Numa famed ? 



bc. 714-816] Rome — The Monarchy. 93 

religion, and erected an altar to Faith. He cultivated the 
taste for farming, and established feasts in honor of the 
god Terminus, who presided over the boundaries of the 
fields. He also built a temple to the two-faced Janus, who 
was supposed to see the past and the future. This temple, 
which was to be closed during peace, was only closed three 
times before Christ : during Numa's reign ; in 235, after 
the first Punic war ; and in the year 30, after the battle 
of Actium. 

6. Tullus Hostilius (672-640); the Horatii and Curi- 
atii. — Tullus Hostilius succeeded ISTuma. He was a war- 
like monarch, and difficulties soon arose between the Ro- 
mans and their neighbors, the Albans. As the armies drew 
up in line of battle it was agreed to decide the day by a 
combat between three champions chosen from each side. 
For the Komans the three brothers Horatii fought ; for 
the Albans the three Curiatii. 

7. At the onset two of the Horatii were slain and the 
three Curiatii wounded. Horatins, unwounded, retreated, 
and, dividing the brothers, attacked and slew them singly. 
Returning to Rome at the head of the army, he was met 
by his sister, who cursed him for slaying her betrothed, 
one of the Curiatii. In a fit of fury he slew her and was 
condemned to death;, but at the moment of execution the 
eloquent appeal of his father prevailed over the people and 
he was spared. The Albans, who at first submitted, again 
revolted, and Tullus razed their city to the ground, annex- 
ing the people to Rome. 

8. Ancus Marcins (640-616). — Ancus Marcius, grandson 
of Numa, succeeded Hostilius. He was as pious as be 
was brave. While repelling all outside attacks he revived 
in Rome respect for religion, laws, and institutions. He 

How often was the temple of Janus closed? 6. Who succeeded Numa? 
With whom did the Romans quarrel ? 7. Describe the combat of the Horatii and 
Curiatii. 8. Who succeeded T. Hostilius ? For what is Ancus Marcius famed % 



94 History of the World. [b.c. 616-578 

built the city and harbor of Ostia, near the mouth of the 
Tiber, thus laying the first foundation of Eome's subse- 
quent maritime commerce. 

SECTION II. The Last Three Kings (616-509 B.C.) 

9. Tarquin the Elder (616-578).— Tarquin, the tutor 
of the royal children, and a man of wealth, capacity, and 
power, supplanted them and ascended the throne. He was 
an Etruscan by birth, and Etruria was at that time the 
most civilized state in Italy. Tarquin introduced the 
magnificence of their ceremonials and habits into Rome. 
He erected many temples and laid the foundation of the 
Capitol. He built aqueducts to supply the city with wa- 
ter, and sewers to drain it. In the midst of his triumphs 
he was assassinated at the instigation of the sons of Ancus. 
The people rushed to the palace ; Tanaquil, the widow, 
told them the king was not dead, but bade them obey Ser- 
"vius Tullius, his son-in-law, until he could reappear. A 
few days after Servius, seeing his authority well established, 
announced the death of the king and proceeded to reign. 

10. Servius Tullius (578-534) ; his Reforms. — Servius 
vanquished the Etruscans, and, making an alliance with 
the Latins, enlarged the city of Rome by including with- 
in its limits two hills in addition to the five it already 
contained. He divided it into four quarters, or tribes, 
called urban tribes. The territory around Eome was divid- 
ed into twenty-six tribes, called rural tribes. The Romans 
were also divided into six classes and one hundred and 
ninety-five centuries, according to their possessions. 

11. Up to this time the comitia, or political meetings of 
the Romans, were held by curias in the forum. The pa- 
tricians alone had the right of casting votes, which were 

9. How did Tarquin ascend the throne 1 What did he do in Rome 1 What 
befell him ? 10. What did Servius Tullius add to Eome ? How did he divide the 
territory and people 1 



b.c. 578-534] Rome— The Monarchy. 95 

counted by polls. With the expansion of the people and 
growth of the state it became necessary to alter this. Ser- 
vius decreed that in future the comitia should be held by 
centuries in the Field of Mars, each century counting for 
one yote. The plebeians also were permitted to vote, and 
were given all the rights of citizenship. Political power 
was thus distributed more widely and wisely than it ever 
had been before ; but as the centuries were ranged ac- 
cording to their possessions, the preponderance of power 
lay with the wealthy class. The patricians constituted the 
first class; but this class alone counted ninety-eight cen- 
turies, the other five classes having only ninety-five. 

12. The Eomans from the earliest times were possessed 
with the genius of government and rule, which accounts 
in great measure for this little people so speedily expand- 
ing into masters of the world. Servius, to provide against 
accidents, ordered a census, or registering, to be renewed 
every five years. This maintained an equilibrium. Those 
who had suffered from loss of fortune went into a lower 
century ; those who had advanced, into a higher. The 
taking of the census was preceded by a religious purifica- 
tory ceremony called lustration; hence every period of five 
years was termed a lustration, much as the Greeks named 
their periods Olympiads. The first census, taken in B.C. 
576, showed that the Eomans had eighty-seven thousand 
freemen able to bear arms. 

13. Servius was beloved by the Eomans ; but envy and 
ambition were at work. Tarquin, his son-in-law, and grand- 
son of the elder Tarquin, aspired to power, and was urged 
on to it by his wife, Tullia. He gained over a portion of 
the senate and was proclaimed king. Servius, now an old 
man, hastened to the senate without his guards. Tarquin 

11. Describe some of Servius' reforms. How did the patricians predominate? 
12. Describe the process of the census. What was a lustration ? What did the 
first census show % 13. Describe the overthrow of Servius. 



96 History of the World. [b.c. 534-509 

seized him, hurled him from the steps, and bade his fol- 
lowers slay him. Tullia, riding to greet her husband, bade 
her charioteer drive over the bleeding corpse of her father, 
whence the street was named Via Scelerata, from the crime. 

14. Tarquin the Proud (534-509) ; his Overthrow. — 
Tarquin's reign was a series of cruelties and exactions. 
He was nevertheless a man of vigor and capacity. He 
completed the Capitol, gained many victories over the 
neighboring peoples, and enlarged his dominion. Many 
prodigies are recorded to have occurred in his reign, 
among others the purchase by him of the Sibylline books, 
which were placed in the Capitol and consulted in Rome 
as the oracle of Delphi was in Greece. They were said to 
have contained predictions of the future of the Soman 
people, and even of the coming of Chris t. 

15. Lucretia, the wife of Tarquin Collatinus, nephew of 
the king, was a woman of great worth and virtue. Tar- 
quin's son, Sextus, was moved with passion for her, and, 
failing to win her love, committed an outrage on her per- 
son. Next day Lucretia summoned her father, husband, 
and kinsmen, told them the story of her wrong, and, pray- 
ing them to avenge her, stabbed herself in their presence. 
Among the kinsmen was Brutus, nephew of Tarquin, long 
deemed a simpleton, but concealing great qualities and 
purpose under this guise. His nearest of kin had been 
slain by Tarquin in order to gain their wealth. He had 
all along resolved on avenging the wrong, and now, rais- 
ing aloft the bloody dagger, he swore to avenge Lucretia 
and pursue to death the race of Tarquin. All took the 
oath and hastened to the city. They roused the people 
with their awful tale. Rome revolted ; the king and all 
his family were banished and retired to Etruria. 

14. For -what was Tarquin's reign remarkable? What building was com- 
pleted by him ? What were the Sibylline boohs ? 15. Tell the story of Lucretia. 
What of Brutus ? What befell the Tarquins ? 



b.c. 509] Rome — The Republic. 97 



THE REPUBLIC. 

This epoch, covering four hundred and eighty years, is divided into three 
periods. The first (b.c. 509-264) embraces the feuds between the patricians and 
the plebeians, and the conquest of central and northern Italy ; the second (b.c. 
264-133) is marked by the wars of Rome with Carthage and her allies ; the third 
(b.c. 133-29) by the last conquests and civil wars of the Eomans. 



CHAPTER I. 

FEUDS AND CONQUESTS IN ITALY (509-264 B.C.) 

SECTION I. The Consulate (509 B.C.) ; the Dictatorship (498 B.C.) ; the 
Tribunes of the People (493 B.C.) 

1. The Consulate. — The patricians, weary of kingly rule, 
changed the monarchy to a republic ; but they resolved on 
keeping the governing power in their own hands. Two 
of their number were elected consuls and endowed with 
power almost equal to that of the kings ; but they only 
held office for one year. Each consul governed alternate- 
ly every month. To appease the plebeians the lands which 
had formed the patrimony of the banished king were dis- 
tributed among them. Brutus and Collatinus, the hus- 
band of Lucretia, were the first consuls chosen. 

2. Collatinus, proposing to restore all their possessions 
to the Tarquins, was compelled to abdicate. Brutus was 
true to the republic, and himself condemned his two sons 
to death for conspiring to re-establish royalty. He pre- 
sided at their execution. Marching against the Etruscans, 
who were under the command of one of Tarquin's sons, 
Brutus and the latter met, and both received mortal 
wounds. The consul's body was taken in pomp to Rome, 

1. What caused the overthrow of the Roman monarchy 1 ? What was the office 
of consul ? Name the first consuls. 2. What of Collatinus 1 How did Brutus 
act 1 What was his end 1 



98 History of the World. [ b .c. 509-495 

and for a year the Koman mothers remained in mourning 
to lament the avenger of chastity. 

3. Lars Porsenna and Horatius Codes. — Tarquin roused 
all the Etruscan cities against Rome. Lars Porsenna, King 
of Clusium, suddenly appeared before the city at the head 
of a powerful army. Borne was saved by the heroism of 
Horatius Codes, who defended a bridge over which the 
enemy had to pass until his comrades had time to break 
it down. Then, throwing himself armed into the Tiber, 
he swam across in safety. 

4. Mutius Scsevola. — Porsenna besieged the city and 
barely escaped from the dagger of Mutius Sesevola, a 
young Roman, who had penetrated the camjD to slay him. 
Porsenna threatened to have him tortured, when the 
young man smilingly held his right hand over a brazier 
until it was consumed, and then told the general that 
three hundred of his fellows had sworn to slay the enemy 
of their country. Porsenna hastened to sign a peace and 
departed. 

5. The plebeians soon found that they suffered more 
from patrician than from royal rule. Instead of one mas- 
ter they had thousands. They became impoverished from 
constant wars and taxations, while they were ground down 
by tyranny. The laws against debtors were extremely 
harsh and were enforced to the letter. Revolt ensued, 
whence the office of dictator was established. 

6. The Dictatorship (498); Battle of Lake Regillus 
(495). — The dictator, named by the consuls and ap- 
proved by the people, was endowed with absolute power ; 
but he only remained in office six months, nor was he cre- 
ated save on the most extraordinary emergencies. Lartius, 
the first dictator, appeased the people and restored union 

3. What course did Tarquin pursue ? Tell of Horatius Cocles. 4. What of 
Mutius Scsevola ? 5. How did the office of dictator originate ? 6. Describe the 
power and limits of the dictator. 



b.c. 495-489] Eome — The Republic. 99 

in the republic. He defeated the Sabines and Latins near 
Lake Eegillns. The remaining son of Tarquin was slain 
there ; and the old king, wounded, sought shelter with the 
tyrant of Cumae, where he died. 

7. The cause of Tarquin being finally ruined, the patri- 
cians redoubled their exactions at home. The people re- 
volted, declaring that they would no longer bear arms for 
such proud and avaricious masters. They withdrew in a 
body from the city to a mountain three miles distant, after- 
wards called the Sacred Mount. This alarmed the senate, 
who sent deputies to them, and on a promise of amendment 
in the laws they agreed to return. 

8. Tribunes of the People. — The plebeians demanded the 
appointment of magistrates chosen by themselves to repre- 
sent their interests. These were called the "tribunes of the 
people." First two, afterwards ten, were chosen for one 
year. They had authority only within the city's limits. 
Their person Was inviolable, their power of the highest. 
By a single veto they could suspend the judgment of all 
the magistrates and the decrees of the senate. This re- 
sulted in handing over the majority in the comitia to the 
people. 

9. Coriolanus. — Coriolanus, so named from the capture of 
Corioli, a Volscian city, was a young patrician of high cou- 
rage and rare military qualities. In the disputes with the 
people he was a strong upholder of the authority of the 
senate. The tribunes of the people finally decreed his ex- 
ile. He had rendered great services to the state, and his 
banishment filled him with resentment. He went over 
to the Volsci, and soon returned to Rome at the head of 
a powerful army (489). 

10. The city was in consternation, and deputies were 

Who fought at Lake Regillus ? The result ? 7. Describe the dissensions in 
Rome. 8. Describe the office and limits of the tribunes of the people. 9. Tell 
the story of Coriolanus. 



100 History of the World. [ b .c. 489-450 

sent out recalling him from banishment and suing for 
peace. Nothing could move him, until at last came Ver 
turia, his mother, accompanied by Volumnia, his wife, lead- 
ing by the hand her two children and followed by a crowd 
of noble matrons. The conqueror was conquered by them ; 
but, refusing to re-enter Kome, be passed the rest of his 
life in sad retirement among the Volsci. 

11. Quintius Cincinnatus (458). — The period between 
the exile of Ooriolanus and the dictatorship of Cincinnatus 
was consumed in wars with the neighboring peoples or 
internal disputes. In one of these wars the consul Mi- 
nn ti as was surrounded by the iEqui. Rome was alarmed, 
and Quintius Cincinnatus was appointed dictator for the 
emergency. At the time of his appointment he was living 
and working on his farm. 

12. Leaving his plough, he returned to Rome, revived 
the courage of the people, gathered an army, and, march- 
ing against the enemy with the utmost speed, defeated them, 
and re-entered Rome laden with booty. Having liberated 
the army, beaten the enemy, and saved the state, he resign- 
ed his dictatorship and went back to his farm. It was 
such examples and such qualities as these that gave vi- 
tality to the Roman republic. 

SECTION II. The Decemviri (450^149 B.C.); the Censorship (444 B.C.); 
Military Tribunes ; Wars with the Veientes and the Gauls. 

13. Tyranny of the Decemviri. — Up to this time juris- 
prudence was in a very poor condition in Rome, the ma- 
gistrates on their own responsibility deciding the most 
important cases at law. So three deputies were sent to 
Greece to collect a system of law beneficial to the republic. 
On their return ten commissioners — decemviri — were ap- 

10. How was Coriolanus overcome'? 11. Why was Cincinnatus called to 
Rome 1 12. How did Cincinnatus act? 13. For what were deputies sent to 
Greece 1 Who were the decemviri ? •>' 



b.c. 450-444] Rome — The Republic. lot 

pointed for one year to draw up a code. For the first 
term of office they behaved well, but, once confirmed in 
power, they became tyrants, against whose action there 
was no appeal, for all the other magisterial offices had 
been abolished. 

14. Downfall of the Decemviri. — Their power was at 
length broken through an act of criminal outrage on the 
part of Appius Claudius, one of their number. Wishing 
to possess himself of the person of Virginia, a young Ko- 
man maiden, her father, a soldier, slew her rather than 
surrender her to dishonor. The soldiers took up their 
comrade's cause, revolted, and the people again retired to 
the Sacred Mount. The senate promised to restore their 
tribunes, proclaimed a general amnesty, banished the de- 
cemviri, and confiscated their property. Appius died in 
prison. 

15. Laws of the Twelve Tables. — The laws of the decem- 
viri are known as the Laws of the Twelve Tables, because 
they were engraved on twelve brazen tablets. They were a 
completion and collection of the old Eoman usages regard- 
ing religion, the family, and property. The father had 
absolute control, even to life and death, over his house- 
hold. The new laws recognized the principle of the equa- 
lity of all citizens irrespective of persons. They forbade, 
however, intermarriage between patricians and plebeians, 
and excluded the latter from the high offices of state. The 
clause preventing intermarriage was afterwards withdrawn. 

16. The Censorship. — The power of the consuls was di- 
vided up. Two censors were appointed, who relieved the 
consuls of many of their functions, and whose duty it was 
to take the census every five years. They were guardians 
of morals, and the office became one of the most impor- 

14. What caused the overthrow of the decemviri ? How was it accomplished? 
15. Describe the Laws of the Twelve Tables. 16. Who were the censors, and 
what was their office 1 



102 History of the World. [b.c. 444-391 

tant in the state. For a long period it was well filled, 
being conferred on only the most illustrious citizens. 

17. Military Tribunes. — The disputes between senate and 
people continued. The tribunes maintained that one of 
the two consuls should be chosen from among the people, 
and after a prolonged resistance they gained their point. 
New magistrates, to the number of from three to six, 
were appointed to supersede the consuls. They were called 
military tribunes, were invested with consular power, and 
were chosen indifferently from both orders. The plebeians, 
having gained the concession, as a rule chose only patricians. 

18. Under the military tribunes the Koman army first 
began to receive pay from the state. Formerly the people 
had to serve at their own expense, which was a great 
grievance and source of suffering. The pay at first was 
about five cents a day. The number of qumstors, charged 
with levying taxes and guarding the public treasury, was 
increased. A quaestor was sent to each province to attend 
to the finances. He was thus an important personage, and 
was elected in the comitia by tribes. 

19. Camillus; Invasion of the Gauls.— The pay of the 
soldiers fixed, military expeditions on an extensive scale 
were planned. Veii, the capital of the Veientes, one of 
the strongest places in Italy and a rival of Koine, fell, after 
a long siege, to the genius of Camillus, the dictator (405- 
395). Falerii was the next to fall (391). The brilliancy 
of his exploits aroused such envy that he was compelled 
to flee the city. He had scarcely departed when the in- 
habitants of Clusium, besieged by the Gauls, appealed to 
the Romans for help. A rash act on the part of one of 
the Roman ambassadors brought the Gauls down on Rome 
itself. The Roman army was defeated at the Allia, and 

17. Why were military tribunes created ? How were they chosen ? 18. How 
was the army organized ? Who were the quaestors ? 19. Who took Yoii ? Who 
jnvaded Rome ? 



b.c. 391-340] Rome — The Republic. 103 

the Gauls stayed three days to collect the booty. The Ro- 
man youth shut themselves up in the Capitol, resolved to 
defend it to the last. The city was deserted save by old 
men, whom the G-auls massacred. They set fire to the 
city and almost surprised the Capitol, which was saved by 
the cackling of some geese, who gave warning of the ene- 
my's approach. 

20. Meanwhile Camillus, forgetting his resentment, gath- 
ered together the wreck of the Roman army, defeated a 
marauding detachment of the Gauls, and hastened to raise 
the siege. While negotiations for the surrender were go- 
ing on between the Gauls and Romans Camillus came 
upon them and utterly routed them. The conqueror was 
honored as the saviour of his country and the second 
founder of Rome. 

SECTION III. Political Equality of Patricians and Pleteians ; Local and 
Foreign Wars. 

21. End of Political Disputes. — Rome rebuilt and freed 
from the Gauls, the old disputes between patrician and 
plebeian broke out anew. The disputes resolved them- 
selves into various changes of offices, the plebeians always 
gaining their point in the end, until finally all offices, even 
the priesthood, became common to the two orders, and the 
internal dissensions were healed. 

22. The Latins conquered. — United Rome now set about 
the conquest of all Italy. The Latins, who had long been 
the allies or vassals of Rome, revolted and claimed an equal 
share in honor and authority with the Romans. The Ro- 
man answer was a declaration of war. The armies were 
well matched in discipline and valor. The battle was 
fought near Mon.it Vesuvius. After a stubborn struggle 

19. Tell of the Gauls in Rome. 20. How and by whom was Rome saved? 
21. How was the civil strife in Rome healed? 22. What occasioned the war 
with the Latins ? How did it end ? 



104 History of the World. [ b .c. 340-290 

the left wing of the Romans, commanded by the consul 
Decius, began to give way, when their flight was arrested 
by the devotion of Decius, who, invoking the aid of the 
gods in behalf of Rome, rushed into the thickest of the 
fight and fell covered with wounds. The Romans, in- 
spired by such an example, returned to the charge. The 
Latins were defeated with a loss of three-fourths of their 
army, and, after other reverses, finally submitted. They 
were treated with wise clemency, admitted as Roman citi- 
zens, and thus incorporated with the republic. 

23. War between the Romans and the Samnites. — An- 
other war followed immediately with the Samnites, allies 
of the Romans. The Campanians, attacked by the Sam- 
nites, made themselves subject to Rome, and thus brought 
on the struggle. The Romans conquered, but at last the 
imprudence of the consuls, Veturius and Posthumius, 
brought on them the most signal disgrace Roman arms 
had ever known. Pontius, the Samnite general, lured the 
legions into a narrow defile, where they were at the mercy 
of the enemy. They were compelled to lay down their 
arms and pass under the yoke — the sign of greatest dis- 
grace — in presence of the Samnite army. This is known 
as the battle of the Caudine Forks. The army marched 
silently back to Rome, which it entered at dead of night. 

24. The Romans refused to be bound by the disgraceful 
conditions agreed on. They appointed Papirius Cursor and 
Publius, two of their best generals, consuls ; raised new 
armies, and in a short time totally defeated the Samnites, 
making Pontius himself and his troops pass under the 
yoke. The war, however, struggled on for forty-nine years, 
and was only put an end to by the consul Ciirius. The 
Samnites submitted, as did also the Etruscans ; and now 

Describe the devotion of Decius. 23. What led to the war with the Sam- 
nites ? What occurred at the Caudine Forks 1 24. How did the Romans take 
their defeat 1 What was the end of the war 1 



b.c. 290-262] Rome — The Republic. 105 

Eome was mistress of all southern Italy just as she was 
compelled to face a dangerous foreign foe (290). 

25. Pyrrhus (280). — This was Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, 
whose exploits have already been given (see p. 87). A 
dispute arose between the Romans and the peoj)le of Ta- 
rentum, who invoked the aid of Pyrrhus. The Romans 
refused to accept his arbitration and offered him battle at 
Heraclea. They were defeated, but the battle cost Pyrrhus 
so dear that he said: u Another such victory and we are 
undone." The Eomans sent out another army, and Pyr- 
rhus, seeing the men he had to deal with, himself made 
overtures of peace. They were rejected, and Pyrrhus was 
defeated by Curius at Beneventum. Thus, after nearly 
five hundred years of struggle, Rome was pre-eminent in 
Italy and had carried her arms into Sicily. 



CHAPTER II. 
WAR AGAINST CARTHAGE AND HER ALLIES. 

SECTION I. First Punic War (264-241 B.C.) 

1. Roman Victories. — Interference in Sicily brought the 
Romans into collision with the Carthaginians. An excuse 
for hostilities was easily found, and the famous Punic wars 
began (264) — called Punic from an old name of the Cartha- 
ginians. The Romans met with success, defeated and won 
over Hiero, tyrant of Syracuse, who became their fast ally, 
and besieged and captured Agrigentum, the Carthaginian 
arsenal (262). 

2. The first Roman Navy. — But Carthage was a naval 
power, and Rome had no fleet. In two months she built 

25. What new foe had Eome to face ? Describe the campaigns with Pyrrhus. 
How did Rome now stand? 1. What led to the Punic wars? 2. What was the 
Qjjgin of the first Roman nayy ? 



106 History of the World. [ b .c. 262-241 

one of one hundred and twenty vessels, using a stranded 
Carthaginian galley as model. The consul Duilius took 
command and went in search of the Carthaginians. As 
soon as he came up with them he grappled their vessels 
by an invention designed for that purpose, and compelled 
them to fight at close quarters. The victory was complete 
and Duilius received a triumph. 

3. The Romans invade Africa. — In the ninth year of the 
war the Romans, who always did things thoroughly, re- 
solved on attacking the Carthaginians in their own coun- 
try. Regulus began by winning a victory which cost the 
Carthaginians one hundred vessels. He landed in Africa 
and seized the port and city of Clypea (256). He went on 
from victory to victory until the Carthaginians were com- 
pelled to sue for peace. This he only agreed to grant on 
the harshest terms, and the people, driven to desperation, 
resolved to defend themselves to the last. Xantippus, 
a famous Lacedaemonian, was put in command. Regu- 
lus was defeated, his army destroyed, and himself made 
prisoner. 

4. Heroism of Regulus. — He was sent to Rome to treat 
for an exchange of prisoners, on the understanding that he 
would return if the Carthaginian proposals were rejected. 
When urged to give his opinion in the senate he advised 
no exchange, on the ground that the Carthaginian prisoners 
were in the flower of their youth, while he was too old to 
be of any further service to his country. The senate re- 
luctantly accepted the sacrifice of Regains, who, true to his 
word, returned to Carthage to endure torture and death. 

5. Final Defeat of Carthage. — His death was a new incen- 
tive to the war. The Romans suffered many reverses and 
inflicted others on their enemy. After twenty-three years 

Who was the first Roman admiral, and what was his exploit? 3. Describe 
the campaigns of Regulus. By whom was he defeated ? 4. What was Regulus' 
advice to the senate ? What befell him 1 



b.c. 241-232] Rome— The Republic. 107 

of varying fortune the consul Lutatius Catullus ended the 
war by the capture of Lilybseum, the strongest city in Sicily, 
and by the destruction of the Carthaginian navy off the 
.ZEgates islands (241). Carthage sued for peace, and Rome, 
which had suffered severely, gladly consented. The Car- 
thaginians had to evacuate Sicily and all the islands be- 
tween Italy and Africa, to pay tribute to the Romans, and 
never make war against Hiero- of Syracuse or any ally of 
Rome. Sicily thus became the first province of Rome. 

6. Hamilcar. — Carthage, being essentially a naval and mer- 
cantile power, hired mercenaries to fight its battles. The 
mercenaries, not having been paid, marched against Car- 
thage. The city at the same time was rent by two rival 
factions, the one wishing peace and the other war. The 
peace party was led by the mercantile family of the Han- 
nos, the war party by the Barca family. As the mercena- 
ries were marching on the city the war party gained the 
ascendant, and Hamilcar Barca was ordered to defend Car- 
thage. He was an able general, and, after a three years' 
war, so defeated the rebels that not one escaped. 

7. Hamilcar's power was so pre-eminent that his country- 
men, always deceitful, sent him to conquer Numidia and 
Mauritania, in the hope that he would be lost in the at- 
tempt. He succeeded, returned in triumph, and set out for 
the conquest of Spain. After more successes he was defeat- 
ed and slain by the warlike tribe of the Celtileri (232). His 
son-in-law, Hasdrubal, pushed his conquests, and his son, 
Hannibal, was destined for still greater achievements. 

8. Second Invasion of the Gauls. — While the Carthaginians 
were engaged with the mercenaries the Romans seized Cor- 
sica and Sardinia. Rome being now without an enemy in 
the field, the temple of Janus was closed (235) for the first 

5. How did the first Punic war end? What did Sicily become? 6. What 
followed at Carthage ? Who defeated the mercenaries ? 7. Describe the further 
exploits of Hamilcar and his death. 



108 History of the World. [ b .c. 232-221 

time since the reign of Numa Ponipilius. It was soon open- 
ed. The Gauls came down from beyond the Po. The So- 
man prophecies always spoke with dread of these barbarians. 
Near Cape Telamon, within three days' march of Rome, the 
Romans met the invading host, and their disciplined valor 
prevailed over the ferocious courage of the barbarians (225). 

9. The Romans followed up their victory, crossed the Po 
for the first time, and seized Milan, the capital of the In- 
subres (223). The Alpine Gauls, called Gesates from their 
skill with the javelin, poured down to assist their country- 
men ; but they were cut to pieces, and their king, Virido- 
mar, was slain by Marcellus, the consul (222). This gave 
the Romans command over the north of Italy. 

10. Wealth and power began to tell disastrously on the 
character of the Romans. Public morals were on the de- 
cline. About the time of the Punic wars theatrical exhi- 
bitions of a degrading character and the combats of gla- 
diators in the arena were introduced. The decay of 
public virtue had set in. 

SECTION II. Second Punic War; Hannibal. 

11. Hannibal in Command. — The second Punic war began 
twenty-two years after the first. It was one of the most fa- 
mous in antiquity. The taking of Sardinia and Corsica was 
the occasion. Saguntum, an Italian city and colony, threa- 
tened by Hasclrubal, put itself under the protection of Rome. 
The Romans compelled Hasclrubal to respect Saguntum and 
limit his conquests to the banks of the Ebro. With his 
death soon after the command of the Carthaginians fell to 
Hannibal. He was only twenty-five at the time. He saw 
that it was a question between Rome and Carthage, and at 

8. What came of the second Gallic invasion ? 9. How did the Romans acquire 
northern Italy 1 10. What was the state of public morals at this time ? 11 . What 
led to the second Punic war? Who commanded the Carthaginians'? 



b.c. 226-216] Rome — The Republic. 109 

once laid siege to Saguntum with, an army of one hundred 
and fifty thousand men. In a short time it fell, and, the 
Carthaginians disregarding the remonstrances of Rome, 
war ensued. 

12. Hannibal in Italy. — Hannibal burnt Saguntum to the 
ground and passed over into Italy. In all history there is 
not a march more conspicuous in military annals. Through 
a hostile country he carried his army, composed in the main 
of mercenaries, over the Pyrenees, the Rhone, the Alps. 
The hostile tribes that met him he overcame in battle or 
won over by promises. He burst upon Italy and swept be- 
fore him the Roman forces, who, under Scipio, the consul, 
opposed him near the Ticinus. Sempronius came to Sci- 
pio's aid, and another battle was fought near the Trebia, 
with a result still more disastrous to Rome (218). 

13. Hannibal advanced into the heart of Italy. Flami- 
nius met him near Lake Trasimenus in a disadvantageous 
position into which the Carthaginian had decoyed him. 
The Romans fought with great courage, but with the death 
of Flaminius they fled (217). 

14. FaMus; Battle of Cannae (216). — Thus were three 
Roman armies beaten in succession, and consternation set 
in at Rome. Fabius, a wary man, was chosen dictator. 
He risked no engagement, but watched Hannibal and har- 
assed him on his march. 

15. Paulus ^Emilius and Varro were appointed consuls. 
Varro was impatient at the Fabian tactics of delay. Em- 
boldened by some small successes, he ventured battle at 
Cannae. The result was the most disastrous defeat that 
the Romans had ever sustained, the consul iEmilius being 
among the slain. 

16. Siege of Capua (211). — Hannibal for some reason de- 

12. How did Hannibal invade Italy? Whom did he defeat? 13. What oc- 
curred at Lake Trasimenus? 14. What was the policy of Fabius \ 15. What 
occurred at Cannae? 



110 History of the World. [ b .c. 216-212 

layed his march on Eome, and this j)robably saved the city, 
if not the empire. He went into winter quarters at Capua, 
where his warriors became enervated by a luxurious life after 
their hard battles and marches. Capua was a rich ally of 
Eome that had gone over to the conqueror. 

17. Hannibal's delay gave the Eomans time to recruit, and 
the defection of Capua deeply exasperated them. They as- 
sembled an army and besieged the city, the proconsuls 
Fulvius and Appius being in command. Hannibal vainly 
strove to break the lines, and the Capuans, notwithstanding 
a brave defence, were soon reduced to the last extremity. 
Hannibal then made a diversion on Eome, but it failed to 
draw off the besieging force. Thence he withdrew to Ta- 
rentum, and Capua was compelled to yield. The inhabi- 
tants were punished with great severity. The city was to 
all intents and purposes destroyed. 

18. Capture of Syracuse. — During the siege of Capua Syra- 
cuse also fell to the Eomans. After the death of Hiero it 
had submitted to the Carthaginians. Marcellus, the consul, 
crossed over and attacked it. It was defended by the engi- 
neering skill of Archimedes, the greatest mathematician of 
antiquity, who invented extraordinary machines to protect 
the city and destroy the Eomans. The siege was turned 
to a blockade. For three years it was prolonged, and was 
only finally taken by surprise. Archimedes was slain while 
solving a mathematical problem, to the great sorrow of Mar- 
cellus (212). The whole island of Sicily then passed under 
the sway of the Eomans. 

19. "War in Spain; the Scipios. — The war raged in Spain 
also. There Publius Scipio and his brother, Cneus, won 
great victories over the Carthaginians. Emboldened by suc- 
cess, they divided their armies, the more easily to achieve the 

] 6. Where did Hannibal winter ? 17. What was the fate of Capua ? 18. What 
occurred at Syracuse? What famous man was killed there? 19. Who com- 
manded the Romans in Spain ? 



b.c. 212-203] Rome — The Republic. Ill 

conquest of the country. The Carthaginian generals united 
their forces, and, attacking the brothers separately, defeated 
them, both the Scipios being slain (212). 

20. Scipio Africanus. — Spain seemed lost, and no candi- 
date presented himself for the proconsulship. Thereupon 
a young man of twenty-four, Publius Cornelius Scipio, son 
of Publius, came forward and said he would undertake to 
avenge the death of his father and uncle and the defeat 
of the armies. He was appointed. The appointment was a 
fortunate one. He soon took the great city of New Car- 
thage and won over the tribes of the country. He con- 
quered the Carthaginian generals and drove them out of 
Spain (211-207). 

21. Defeat and Death of Hasdrubal. — Hasdrubal, brother 
of Hannibal, eluded Scipio, and with a large army crossed 
the Alps and entered Italy with a view to joining Hannibal. 
He was met near the Metaurus by the two consuls, and, after 
an obstinate combat, defeated in the bloodiest battle of the 
war (207). Hasdrubal, seeing the day lost, rushed into the 
midst of the enemy and perished. 

22. The consul Nero, returning to his command in front 
of Hannibal, threw the head of Hasdrubal into the enemy's 
camp. This was the first news that Hannibal received of 
the defeat, and he gave up the cause of Carthage as lost. 
He retired to the province of Brutium, where for a long- 
time he maintained his army unaided by the government. 

23. Scipio in Africa (203). — Scipio, after driving the Car- 
thaginians from Spain, returned to Eome in triumph. He 
was made consul and sent to Sicily (205). He was allowed 
to pass over into Africa, his conviction being that the surest 
way of destroying the power of Carthage was by destroying 
Carthage itself. Two Carthaginian armies were sent against 

20. Who was Scipio Africanus ? What did he do in Spain ? 21. Describe the 
battle of Metaurus. 22. Whither did Hannibal retire 1 23. What was Scipio's 
plan? 



112 History of the World. [ b .c. 203-202 

him : one commanded by Hasdrubal, the other by Syphax, a 
Numidian prince. 

24. The Carthaginian camps were carelessly guarded. Sci- 
pio, learning this, sent Lselius, his lieutenant, and Masinissa, 
an ally, against Syphax, while he himself made for the 
camp of Hasdrubal. The camp of Syphax was set on fire 
and most of the Numidians slain by the soldiers of Masi- 
nissa. Hasdrubal's troops, seeing the conflagration and at- 
tributing it to accident, rushed to the succor of their allies 
and were destroyed by Scipio. Hasdrubal's camp was then 
attacked and set fire to. Of the Carthaginian host only 
two thousand were left. 

25. Hannibal recalled ; Battle of Zama (202). — Hannibal 
was recalled to Carthage. He left Italy, lamenting his su- 
pineness after Cannae. Eeturning to Africa and seeing the 
spent strength of his own country opposed to the Roman 
power, he asked for peace. The famous generals met, but 
Scipio refused to accept Hannibal's conditions. A battle 
ensued, in which Hannibal was completely defeated and fled 
with a few horsemen to Carthage. He advised his coun- 
trymen to make peace at any price. 

26. They took his advice. Scipio's conditions were that 
the Carthaginians should restrict themselves to Africa ; de- 
liver up their vessels, save ten ; pay to Eome ten thousand 
talents of silver within fifty years, and wage no war without 
Eome's permission. The kingdom of Syphax was given to 
Masinissa. Scipio, having completed his triumphs, returned 
to Rome and was given the surname of Africanus in me- 
mory of his conquest. Hannibal, exiled from Carthage by 
demand of Rome, continued to intrigue against that power. 
He found refuge at the court of Antiochus the Great, and 
persuaded that monarch to declare war against Rome. On 

24. Describe Scipio's victory. 25, What occasioned Hannibal's recall ? What 
occurred at Zama ? 26. Wbat were Scipio's conditions of peace ? Why was he 
called Africanus ? 



b.c. 202-163] Rome — The Republic, 113 

the defeat of Antiochus Hannibal's surrender was demanded. 
He then fled to Prusias, King of Bithynia, and intrigued 
there. His surrender was insisted on by Rome, and rather 
than fall into the hands of his implacable enemies he 
took poison (183). 

SECTION in. Third Punic War (149-146 B.C.) 

27. Rome and the Allies of Carthage.— Hannibal being 
gone, the Romans turned their arms against his allies — 
Philip of Macedon, Antiochus the Great of Syria, and 
Perseus, Philip's successor. Macedonia was conquered and 
became a Roman province (see p. 88). The Gauls, who 
had fought under Hannibal, still held out, but were finally 
subdued, and their country also became a Roman province 
(163) under the name of Cisalpine Gaul. 

28. Destruction of Carthage (146). — Rome was now mis- 
tress not only of Italy but of the neighboring countries. 
She saw with anxiety Carthage emerging from her disas- 
ters and again growing rich and powerful. She resolved 
on destroying it. She was urged to this step by Cato the 
Elder, who was sent as an envoy to Carthage, and, seeing 
its opulence after such great reverses, came back to Rome 
with the one phrase on his lips : " Carthage must be de- 
stroyed. " 

29. In pursuing this policy the Romans were extremely 
harsh. They rejected all overtures of peace, and the Car- 
thaginians, driven to desperation, resolved on defending 
their city to the last. They made most extraordinary ef- 
forts of defence and extraordinary sacrifices, men and wo- 
men toiling together night and day. The consuls, not 
dreaming of stout resistance from the broken power, ad- 
vanced confidently to Carthage. . They were deceived. 

What was the fate of Hannibal 1 ? 27. Whom did the Romans next attack? 
28. What occasioned the third Punic war % 29. What action did the Cartha- 
ginians take ? 



114 History of the World. [ b .c. 163-141 

The siege was maintained for two years, and Eome be- 
gan to doubt the issue of the war which it had wantonly 
provoked. 

30. Scipio iEmilianus was finally appointed consul. He 
was a young man, distinguished both for his virtues and 
his family connections, being a son of the conqueror of Per- 
seus, and, by adoption, the grandson of Scipio Africanus. 
He first restored discipline among the demoralized Roman 
troops and then invested the city. A dreadful famine 
broke out among the inhabitants. Scipio stormed the 
ramparts and advanced into the heart of the city. He 
met with a most obstinate resistance, which was prolonged 
for six days and nights. The carnage was frightful, 
and on the seventh day seventy thousand Carthaginians 
accepted quarter. 

31. Carthage was ended ; its dependencies submitted to 
the Eomans ; and Scipio, on his return to Rome, received 
with his triumph the surname of Africanus (146). In the 
same year Corinth fell to the Roman arms, the league 
of the Achaeans was dissolved, and Greece was reduced 
to a Roman province. 

32. Siege and Fall of Mumantia (141-133). — Spain was 
still turbulent and refused to submit to the Roman yoke. 
The men sent to govern it were not of the best. Under the 
lead of Viriathus the people rose and inflicted severe losses 
on the Romans. The latter, unable to conquer him, treach- 
erously caused him to be assassinated. JSTumantia alone de- 
feated a Roman army vastly its superior in numbers, and 
forced it to conclude a dishonorable peace. 

33. Scipio iEmilianus was appointed consul and sent out 
to Spain. He found the army totally disorganized. He 
speedily restored discipline, and then set out for the siege 

30. Describe the siege of Carthage. 31. What important events occurred 
simultaneously with the fall of Carthage ? 32. Who held out in Spain ? 33. Tell 
of the siege and fall of Numantia. 



b.c. 133] Rome — The Republic. 115 

of Numantia. He invested it and caused a famine in the 
city, so that the inhabitants at last fed on human flesh. 
The city was taken. The people in great part chose 
self-destruction rather than renounce their freedom. Scipio, 
reserving fifty for his triumph, sold the rest into slavery, 
levelled the city to the ground, and distributed its lands 
among the neighboring tribes. 



CHAPTER III. 

CIVIL WARS AND LAST CONaUESTS (133-29 B.C.) 

SECTION I. The Gracchi; Jugurtha; Marius. 

1. The Gracchi. — While Scipio was fighting in Spain there 
were grave and bloody dissensions in Rome. These arose 
from the ambition of the two Gracchi, sons of Cornelia, 
the daughter of the first Scipio Africanus. They were en- 
dowed with great gifts but greater ambition. The strug- 
gle originated about a land law called Agrarian. This law, 
proposed by the plebeian tribunes, deprived the wealthy of 
certain lands that had come down to them, and distributed 
these among the indigent. There was probably some rea- 
son on both sides. It was a delicate matter to touch, and 
the senate had always opposed its passage as calculated to 
create confusion and strife. Tiberius Gracchus undertook 
to enforce it at any cost. The senate resolved to resist it at 
any cost. Tiberius, with three hundred of his partisans, 
was slain (133). 

2. Caius Gracchus, who was nine years younger than his 
brother, had so far nothing to do with these disturbances. 
He remained quiet for years, nursing his revenge. Seeing 

What became of the people 1 1. Who were the Gracchi ? What was the 
Agrarian law ? Why did the senate oppose this law ? What part did Tiberius 
Gracchus take 1 What became of him ? 



116 History of the World. [ b .c. 133-108 

his opportunity, he rose up as the advocate of the people's 
rights. The senate resolved to kill him, and the consul 
Opimius marched against him and routed his attendants. 
Caius, seeing himself abandoned, ordered his slave to kill 
him. The slave obeyed and then slew himself (121). 
With the Gracchi perished for the time being the civil 
strife. 

3. Jugurtha (113-112). — While Rome was rent by these 
dissensions trouble arose in ISTumidia. Masinissa had di- 
vided his kingdom among his two sons and Jugurtha, his 
nephew. Micipsa governed in chief ; but Jugurtha wished 
to reign alone. He caused the assassination of his cousins, 
and was summoned to Eome to give an account of his con- 
duct. Knowing the corruption there, he set out for the 
city. Bribing a tribune of the people, the tribune for- 
bade him to speak when asked to answer the charges 
brought against him. Notwithstanding the anger of the 
people, the tribune's word was law, and the assembly dis- 
solved without coming to a decision. While in Eome Ju- 
gurtha procured the assassination of Masinissa's grandson. 
He was thereupon expelled from Italy and war was de- 
clared against him. 

4. Some of the Roman generals sent against him Jugur- 
tha bribed ; others he beat. At last Metellus, a trained 
general and an incorruptible man, was sent to Africa. Me- 
tellus was on the point of completing his conquest when 
Marius, one of his lieutenants, stepped in (108). Marius, 
appointed consul, superseded Metellus in the command. 

5. Jugurtha had fought bravely and with skill, but he 
could not prevail against Rome. He was deserted by Boc- 
chus, King of Mauritania, his ally. Bocchus was urged to 
deliver Jugurtha, and, after long hesitation, did so, and 

2. What was the fate of Caius Gracchus 1 3. Who was Jugurtha ? Describe 
his course of action. 4. What generals were sent against Jugurtha ? 5. By 
whom was Jugurtha betrayed ? 



b.c. 103-101] Rome— The Republic. 117 

sent him loaded with chains to Sulla, the quaestor of Ma- 
rius. Sulla claimed the triumph, which led to a rivalry 
between him and Marius disastrous in its after-effects. 
Jugurtha with his two sons was taken to Rome to grace 
the conqueror's triumph, and cast into a dungeon, where 
he perished. 

6. Teutones and Cimbri. — Rome was always a tempting 
prize to the fierce barbaric tribes bordering on its northern 
domains. Two powerful northern peoples, the Teutones 
and Cimbri, united their forces and marched towards the 
Alps while Rome was rejoicing over the fall of Jugurtha. 
She sent a powerful force to meet them under the com- 
mand of incompetent generals. A battle was fought near 
the Rhone, in which eighty thousand Romans were left on 
the field, while the conquerors, instead of marching on 
Rome, proceeded to ravage the south of Gaul. 

7. Marius Consul. — Marius, being regarded as the only 
general who could save his country, was, for the first time 
in the history of the republic, appointed consul for several 
years in succession. In his fourth consulate the Teutones 
appeared on the Italian frontier. Notwithstanding their 
vast numbers, he beat them near Aix (102). The Cimbri 
had crossed the Alps, beaten the Romans opposed to them, 
and advanced to Vercellae, on the banks of the Po. Marius 
hastened to meet them, and the Cimbri were almost de- 
stroyed (101). For these exploits Marius was honored with 
the title of third founder of Rome. 

8. His authority was now supreme. He was an able 
general, but no statesman. He governed badly. The 
Italians desired the name and rights of Roman citizens. 
They were denied it, and in the "social war" that en- 
sued they compelled Rome to grant them their demand. 

How did the rivalry between Sulla and Marius originate ? 6. By whom was 
Italy now invaded ? 7. Describe the campaigns of Marius against the invaders. 
8. What occasioned the " social war " ? 



118 History of the World. [ b .c. 101-82 

The Samnites were now the only enemies of Rome left 
in Italy. 

SECTION II. Wars against Mithridates (88-63 B.C.) ; Sulla; Spartacus; 

Catiline. 

9. Mithridates in Asia Minor. — While Eome was torn 
by its internal troubles it was threatened without by 
Mithridates, King of Pontus, who overran Asia Minor. 
He massacred one hundred thousand Eomans and Ital- 
ians settled there. Sulla, then consul, was sent against 
him, but Marius had Sulla deprived of his command. 
Sulla returned to Rome at the head of an army and 
expelled Marius and his partisans. Marius escaped to 
Africa, but on the departure of Sulla for Greece he re- 
turned to Rome. 

10. Victories of Sulla. — Greece was invaded by Arche- 
laus, the chief general of Mithridates. Sulla took Athens 
by storm, and at Chaeronea cut the army of Archelaus in 
pieces. Soon after his- own bravery turned what threat- 
ened to be a great disaster into a great victory at Or-, 
chomenus (86). Mithridates, terrified, ordered Archelaus 
to make peace. By the terms of the peace Mithridates 
surrendered his conquests, his navy, a great part of his 
treasures, and was confined to the limits of his former 
kingdom of Pontus. This is known as the treaty of 
Dardanum (84). 

11. While Sulla was winning these victories Rome was at 
the cruel mercy of Marius. Sulla's friends were massacred, 
as were many other citizens. Marius caused himself to be 
elected consul a seventh time. Sulla's successes so tormented 
him that he took to drinking and soon died of fever. 

12. Sulla Master of Rome (82). — On his return to Italy 

9. Who was Mithridates ? What troubles arose in Eome at this time 1 10. How 
and by whom was Mithridates overcome 1 What was the treaty of Dardanum ? 
11. What passed in Rome meanwhile 1 



b.c. 82] Rome — The Republic. 119 

Sulla found opposed to him fifteen generals and an army 
of over two hundred thousand men. His own veteran 
force numbered only forty thousand ; hut men flocked to 
his standard, and Pompey and Crassus, then rising in pub- 
lic life, were on his side. The party of Marius was beaten 
everywhere, but a battle with the Samnites nearly proved 
fatal to Sulla and to Home. Under their experienced 
general, Telesinus, they evaded Sulla and Pompey, and 
by night reached the defenceless capital. Sulla followed 
after and at once attacked. The combat was most ob- 
stinate, and at first declared for the Samnites. But the 
tide was turned when Telesinus fell mortally wounded. 
Sulla's orders were that no quarter be given, and few 
Samnites escaped. 

13. Sulla entered Rome, and his first act was to put to 
death six thousand soldiers of the Marian party, who had 
surrendered under promise of life. Made dictator, he 
dealt out death on all sides ; his word being law, ninety 
senators, over two thousand knights, and a vast number 
of citizens fell under his vengeance in Rome and through- 
out Italy. Then he softened and revived the laws. He 
weakened the power of the tribunes, which had often been 
abused, restored the cbief authority to the senate and pa- 
trician order, and distributed the lands of his enemies 
among his own officers and soldiers. He had thus more 
than one hundred and twenty thousand warriors who 
owed their fortunes to him. 

14. For nearly three years he maintained this power, 
and then voluntarily resigned it. Retiring into private 
life, he gave himself up to debauchery and licentiousness. 
He died, at the age of sixty, in the year following his ab- 
dication (78). 

12. Describe Sulla's return to Eome. What of the Samnites ? 13. How did 
Sulla use his power? 14. How long did Sulla remain in power? Describe his 
closing years. 



120 History of the World. [ b .c. 78-70 

15. Mithridates again invades Asia Minor. — Some being 
occupied with a war in Spain against Sertorius, the last 
of the Marian generals, and in Italy with a revolt of the 
gladiators under Spartacus, Mithridates again invaded the 
Roman provinces of Asia Minor and laid siege to Cyzicus, 
a city of importance. 

16. Spartacus. — Spartacus was a Thracian of great 
strength, courage, and military capacity. Himself a 
gladiator, he formed a conspiracy among his brethren of 
the arena. "If Ave must fight why not fight our oppres- 
sors ? " he asked. The revolt succeeded, and numbers of 
slaves, to whom he promised liberty and riches, flocked to 
his standard. He defeated several Eoman armies, when 
dissensions broke out in his camp and compelled him to 
give battle in a bad position on the Silarus. There he 
was defeated and slain (71). 

17. Sertorius. — Sertorius, a partisan of Marius, having 
fled to Spain, was aided by the Lusitanians. He defeat- 
ed the generals sent against him, and set up a govern- 
ment on the model of the Roman Republic. Unable to 
conquer him, the Roman generals set a price on his head, 
and he was assassinated by Perpenna, one of his lieuten- 
ants (73). 

18. Lucullus and Mithridates. — Lucullus was sent against 
Mithridates, whose army he destroyed in passing the Gra- 
nicus (74). Mithridates, closely pursued, escaped to Pon- 
tus. Stripped of his states, he sought refuge with Tigra- 
nes, his son-in-law, King of Armenia (70). Lucullus en- 
tered Armenia with an army of fifteen thousand men. He 
was met at Tigranocerta by Tigranes at the head of three 
hundred thousand Armenians. The unwieldy force gave 
way at the first onset of the Romans, leaving fifty thou- 

15. What opportunity did Mithridates seize ? 16. Describe the revolt under 
Spartacus. 17. Who was Sertorius, and what befell him? 18. Describe Lucul- 
lus' campaign in the East. 



b.c. 70-63] Rome— The Republic. 121 

sand dead on the field, the Roman loss being trifling. 
Tigrauocerta with its immense treasures fell into the 
hands of the conquerors, and the neighboring countries 
submitted (69). 

19. Tigranes called Mithridates to the command. The 
latter shunned general engagements and harassed the 
Eomans on the march. Lucullus marched on Artaxata, 
where Tigranes' treasures lay. To defend these the two 
monarch s agreed to risk an engagement. The result was 
their complete defeat, followed by the conquest of all Ar- 
menia (68). Too much good fortune wrought insubordi- 
nation in the Roman ranks. They refused to obey Lucul- 
lus. He returned to Rome, leaving the command to less 
experienced generals. Mithridates and Tigranes, rallying, 
soon drove the Romans from their states (67). 

20. Pompey. — Pompey had been rising into prominence. 
He brought the war in Spain against Sertorius to a suc- 
cessful close. He defeated Spartacus. He was now given 
"the proconsulship of the seas," in order to rid Rome of 
a dangerous nest of pirates — refugees from the army of 
Mithridates— who- had seized on the city of Ostia and 
were committing great depredations. In three months 
he had destroyed them and brought to a close the "war 
of the pirates" (67). 

21. He was next sent against Mithridates, and in a 
single brief campaign brought the war to a close (65). 
Deserted by all, and a price being set on his head by 
Tigranes, Mithridates resolved on carrying the war into 
Italy. But his soldiers refused to follow, set up his 
son, Pharnaces, in his place, and the old king in despair 
caused one of his Gallic mercenaries to put an end to 
his life (63). 

19. How was Armenia conquered? What was the result of Lucullus' de- 
parture? 20. Mention the exploits of Pompey. 21. What was the end of 
Mithridates ? 



122 History of the World. [b.c. 63-62 

22. Pompey meanwhile had subjugated the kingdoms of 
Syria, Phoenicia, and Judea, and reduced all the country 
beyond the Euphrates to a Roman province. Pharnaces 
and Tigranes became tributaries of the republic. He re- 
turned to Rome in triumph, and was crowned with the 
title of "Great." 

23. Catiline's Conspiracy (63). — Daring Pompey's East- 
ern campaign conspiracy had been rife in Rome. It was 
set on foot by Sergius Catiline, a senator, whose ambi- 
tion Avas as great as his profligacy and daring. His plan 
was to massacre the senate, fire the city, and overthrow 
the republic. He gathered around him all the evil ele- 
ments of the Roman nobility and populace. To carry 
out his plan he aspired to the chief magistracy. But 
news of the conspiracy got abroad and the suffrages of 
the alarmed citizens fell to Cicero, the great orator, au- 
thor, and advocate, a man of universal renown. An at- 
tempt on the part of Catiline to assassinate Cicero failed. 
Rome was put in a state of siege. 

24. Cicero Consul (63). — When the senate met Catiline 
appeared with calm front in his usual place. Then Ci- 
cero rose and, in a speech of unsurpassed vehemence and 
power, unmasked the traitor and exposed his schemes. 
Catiline fled the city on the following night and joined 
the troops he had collected in Etruria. The conspirators 
he left behind him to execute his plaiis were arrested and 
the ringleaders put to death. Instead of marching on 
Rome, as he had intended, Catiline made for the Alps. 
The Roman legions pursued him and compelled him to 
fight. He and all his men fell together. To Cicero was 
accorded the title of "Father of his Country" (b.c. 62). 

22. Describe Pompey's conquests. What title was bestowed on Mm 1 23. 
What was Catiline's conspiracy 1 In whom did the Romans confide ? 24. What 
was Cicero's action ? What Catiline's ? 



b.c. 60-51] Rome — The Republic. 123 

SECTION III. The First Triumvirate (60 B.C.) ; Caesar and Pompey 
(48 B.C.) ; Antony and Octavius. 

25. Tlie first Triumvirate. — This dangerous conspiracy 
ended, a new and more dangerous one arose in the per- 
son of Caius Julius Caesar, a Roman noble, possessed of 
every natural and acquired gift that fits a man to lead. 
He was as illustrious in letters as in war, and as graceful 
in society as he was at home in the camp. With Pompey 
and Crassus, the chief commanders in Konie, he formed a 
league called the "First Triumvirate," and got himself 
appointed consul. He won over the people by passing an 
agrarian law (59). 

26. Conquest of Gaul. — He was next nominated procon- 
sul of Gaul, where fighting was to be clone. In his own 
Commentaries he admirably describes the conquest of Gaul 
and his other conquests over the Germans, Helvetians, and 
Britons. The result of an eight years' struggle against the 
most warlike tribes in Europe was to convert Aquitania 
and Celtic and Belgic Gaul into provinces of Eome. To 
it was given the name of Transalpine Gaul, or Gaul 
beyond the Alps, to distinguish it from Cisalpine Gaul 
(60-51). 

27. Crassus and the Parthians. — Crassus, desiring, like 
Pompey and Caesar, to shine also as a great comman- 
der, assumed the government of Syria. His design was 
to subdue the Parthians and extend his conquests to 
the Indus. He pillaged the Temple at Jerusalem, and 
from that day evil fortune seemed to follow him. He 
kept along the line of the Euphrates, followed by a fleet 
laden with provisions. He was lured into Mesopotamia, 
and in a few days found himself in a desert without wa- 
ter or provisions. Near Carrae he was met by clouds of 

25. Who formed the first Triumvirate, and who was its leading member ? 
What were the characteristics of Caesar'? 26. Describe Ceesar's campaigns. 
27. Describe the campaign of Crassus. 



124 History of the World. [ b .c. 51-48 

Parthians, defeated, and compelled to retreat. He was 
lured again into a marshy country, where the enemy 
overtook him. Surena, the Parthian general, under pre- 
tence of a conference, seized his person. His escort at- 
tempting to defend him, both they and their general were 
slain (53). 

28. Rivalry of Caesar and Pompey. — The death of Cras- 
sus left Caesar and Pompey rivals. There was great cor- 
ruption in the administration at Eome, and licentiousness 
prevailed. Pompey encouraged this with a view to hav- 
ing himself appointed dictator. He was named sole con- 
sul — a distinction without precedent. 

29. Caesar, then in Gaul, demanded the privilege of be- 
ing a candidate for the following year. It was granted, 
but Pompey nullified the grant. Caesar resolved on re- 
turning. He crossed the Alps at the head of his legions. 
At the banks of the Rubicon, which formed the limit of 
his province, he hesitated, foreseeing the result of the step 
he was about to take. But he pushed on, seized Eimini, 
traversed Italy with extraordinary speed, and before Pom- 
pey was prepared to meet him he found himself besieged 
in Brundisium. Pompey escaped by sea to Dyrrachium. 
Caesar, having no ships to pursue him, returned to Eome, 
which he entered as a conqueror. His moderation and 
gentleness at once won for him a multitude of parti- 
sans (49). 

30. Battle of Fharsalia (48). — Pompey assembled a power- 
ful army in Greece. Caesar, having subjugated Spain and 
Italy, went to meet his rival and gave him battle in the 
plains of Pharsalia, in Thessaly. Caesar's superior general- 
ship carried the day. Pompey fled and escaped to Egypt, 
whose king, Ptolemy, he had befriended ; but as soon as 

28. Who now became rivals ? What was Pompey's policy ? 29. Why did 
Ceesar return to Eome? How did Pompey act? 30, Describe the battle of 
Pharsalia. What befell Pompey ? 



b.c. 48-45] Rome— The Republic. 125 

lie reached the shore he was treacherously murdered by 
Ptolemy's order (48). 

31. Caesar in the East (48-46). — Caesar set out in pur- 
suit of Pompey. At Alexandria he learned with horror 
of his murder. He was called in to settle the differences 
between Ptolemy and Cleopatra. To the latter he award- 
ed the crown. Ptolemy, enraged, attacked him in the pa- 
lace at Alexandria, where he lay intrenched with only a 
few thousand men. He sustained the defence until the 
arrival of reinforcements, when he attacked the Egyp- 
tians, routed the army, and Ptolemy was drowned in the 
Nile. 

32. Caesar then passed over into Asia to attack Phar- 
naces, the son of Mithridates. His march was so rapid 
that he described it in the celebrated words, "Veni, vidi, 
vici" — I came, I saw, I conquered (46). Restoring peace, 
he returned to Eome in triumph, and was appointed dic- 
tator for ten years. 

33. Caesar in Africa and Spain. — He was soon called over 
into Africa, whither Labienus, his former lieutenant, and 
others of Pompey's partisans had fled. Among them was 
Cato of Utica, the great-grandson of the elder Cato, a 
man of stern integrity of life. Caesar defeated them at 
Thapsus. Utica alone held out, but succumbed at last, 
and, rather than fall into the hands of the conqueror, 
Cato died by his own hand (46). 

34. Pompey's two sons had raised an army in Spain. 
Caesar hastened thither, and after a bloody struggle gain- 
ed a decisive victory near Munda (45), which Caesar's own 
bravery and skill alone prevented from becoming a total 
defeat to his legions. Labienus and one of Pompey's 
sons were slain. 

31. Between whom did Caesar arbitrate in Egypt ? What did Ptolemy do ? 
The result? 32. What did Csesar do in Asia? 33. Whom next did Cassar sub- 
due? 34. What took place at Munda? 



126 History of the World. [ b .c. 45-43 

35. Triumph and Death of Csesar (44).— The battle 
of Munda brought peace at last, and Csesar returned to 
Eome. He was made perpetual dictator, and the titles of 
"Imperator" and "Father of his Country" were bestowed 
on him. The adulation of him grew so great that reli- 
gious ceremonies and sacrifices were decreed him and his 
statues were placed in the temples. 

36. Meanwhile conspiracy was at work. His desire to 
be proclaimed king added fuel to the flame. Caius Cas- 
sius was the ostensible leader in the conspiracy, but the 
soul of it was Brutus, an enthusiast, whom Csesar had 
much befriended. Caesar, rejecting all warnings, even on 
the day fixed for his assassination, entered the senate as 
usual. At the given signal the conspirators flung them- 
selves upon him, and, pierced by twenty-three wounds, 
he fell at the foot of Pompey's statue (44). 

37. Second Triumvirate (43). — Octavius, Caesar's grand- 
nephew and adopted son, was in Greece at the time. He 
was still a youth, but an able politician and cool leader. 
He returned to Eome and presented himself as Caesar's 
heir. Caesar's immense fortune fell to him, and he used 
his money with effect. Mark Antony, Caesar's lieutenant 
and master of the cavalry, was made consul. He associ- 
ated himself with Octavius and Lepidus, the latter a man 
of great wealth but without ability. This constituted the 
second triumvirate. 

38. The Proscriptions. — The new triumvirs distributed 
among themselves all the provinces of the republic. They 
then drew up lists of proscriptions wherein were named 
their friends, benefactors, kinsmen, and brethren. Cicero, 
who had opposed Antony, was sacrificed. He calmly gave 
himself up to his murderers (43). 

35. How was Cresar honored 1 36, What conspiracy was formed against Cfflsar 1 
The result ? 37. Who formed the second triumvirate ? 38. What was the action 
of the triumTirate 1 



b.c. 43-81] Rome — The Republic. 127 

39. Battle of Philippi. — Terrorism reigned in Eome. 
The triumvirs then passed into Macedonia in. pursuit of 
Brutus and Cassius, who had twenty legions under their 
command. Brutus attacked Octavius with such impetu- 
osity that he drove him back and took his camp. Mean- 
while Antony attacked Cassius and beat him as Brutus 
had Octavius. Cassius, thinking all was lost, slew him- 
self in despair. Brutus was soon after beaten at Philippi, 
and ended his life by suicide (42). 

40. Partition of the Roman World. — Octavius and An- 
tony now divided the Roman provinces between them, 
leaving nothing to Lepidus. Octavius held the West and 
the East was given to Antony. Here he fell a victim to 
the wiles of Cleopatra, and dallied with her while Oc- 
tavius was strengthening his power in Italy. 

41. War between Octavius and Antony (32). — Octavius 
employed Antony's army in Sicily to defeat Sextus, son 
of the great Pompey, who after Csesar's death menaced 
the coast of Italy with a large fleet. Part of Antony's 
forces had previously been wasted on a disastrous expedi- 
tion against the Parthians. Ventidius, his lieutenant, re- 
paired Antony's losses here and gained greater advantages 
over this enemy than had ever yet been gained by a Ro- 
man general (39). Antony being now weakened by his 
losses in war and degraded by his voluptuous life, Oc- 
tavius caused the senate to strip him of his titles, and set 
sail at the head of an immense fleet to carry out the sen- 
tence. This roused Antony for the moment, and, collect- 
ing all his forces, he went to meet his rival. 

42. Battle of Actium (31) ; Death of Antony.— The fleets 
met near the promontory of Actium. The victory was a 
long time in suspense, when Cleopatra withdrew from the 

39. Describe the battle of Philippi. 40. How was the Eoraan world divided 1 ? 
Under whose influence did Antony fall ? 41. Describe the rivalry between An- 
tony and Octavius and its consequences. 



128 History of the World. [ B .c. 31-29 

action with all her vessels. Antony abandoned everything 
to follow her. His fleet surrendered. Octavius ajjpeared 
before Pelusium, the key of Egypt. Cleopatra, fearing 
Antony's anger, sent word that she had killed herself. 
Thereupon he threw himself on his sword and inflicted 
a mortal wound. He was carried to her presence and 
there expired. Cleopatra strove to practise the same arts 
on Octavius that she had on Antony. Failing in this, 
and discovering that she was to be sent to Eome to grace 
the conqueror's triumph, she put an end to her life (see 
p. 82). 

43. Octavius Emperor; End of the Republic (29). — Egypt 
was reduced to a Soman province. Octavius, confirming 
Herod as king of Judea, returned to Eome and made a 
triumphal entry. He closed the temple of Janus, giving 
peace to the world. He was endowed with the titles of 
"Father of his Country," "Prince of Peace," "Pacifier 
of the World," and finally "Emperor," or commander-in- 
chief of all the Eoman armies. This title, set before his 
name, and not after it, as had been ' the custom, served 
thenceforth to designate the sole master of the Eoman 
world, and the Eepublic, though not officially abolished, 
yielded to the Empire. 



CHAPTEE IV. 

INSTITUTIONS, MANNERS, AND CUSTOMS OF THE 

ROMANS. 

1. Orders of State. — Under the Eoman Eepublic the 
sovereignty belonged to "the three orders of state, the 
patricians, knights, and plebeians. The comitia, or na- 

42. Describe the battle of Actinm. How did Antony die ? 43. To what was 
Egypt reduced ? What of Judea 1 ? How was Octavius honored ? By what was 
the Republic now followed ? 



Rome — The Republic. 129 

tional assemblies, were held at first in the Forum, but as 
the republic expanded they were moved to the Field of 
Mars, near the Tiber. The nation reserved to itself in 
the comitia the right of making laws, of declaring war or 
peace, of judging the most important cases, and of ap- 
pointing the magistrates of the republic. 

2. Government. — The government was confided to the 
senate and to a large number of magistracies. Of the 
magistracies the priesthood- alone was perpetual. The 
magistracies were invested with power of life and death, 
but the magistrates were themselves responsible at the ex- 
piration of their office. 

3. The Roman Army. — In time of war every citizen was 
a soldier. No man, save in the last days of the republic, 
could attain office unless he had served ten years in the 
army. Service began at seventeen and ended at forty- 
seven. The army was divided into legions, whose num- 
bers varied in time from twelve hundred to six thousand 
infantry and three hundred cavalry. Each legion had a 
number and a distinguishing name. Six military tribunes 
in turn commanded a legion, and under the tribunes were 
the centurions. Each Eoman camp was converted into a 
practical fortress. Hence many of these camps formed the 
foundations of cities. In time of peace the soldiers were 
occupied in clearing untilled lands, erecting fortresses, 
digging canals, building cities, and constructing the fa- 
mous highways that ' stretched from Eome to the extre- 
mities of the empire. 

4. Eoman Colonization. — To conquered countries the Ro- 
mans sent plebeians and veteran soldiers to plant a colony. 
To these was given in fee-simple a certain portion of the 
territory. They formed a garrison of great use to the 

1. With whom did the sovereignty rest under the republic ? 2. Who governed 1 
What was the power of the magistracy? 3. Describe the Roman army. What 
of the camps ? 



130 History of the World. 

home government. Under the empire quite a number of 
military colonies were founded at various advantageous 
stations. To certain cities outside the Soman limits was 
granted the right of municipality. This made the in- 
habitants Roman citizens, though not with all the privi- 
leges of Eomans. Their persons were inviolable, nor 
could they be reduced to slavery nor beaten with rods. 
In this way St. Paul used his privilege against his ene- 
mies. 

5. The Roman Family. — The Roman father had absolute 
control over the members of his family. If a deformed 
child were born to him he could kill it. He could pun- 
ish his children as he pleased, or sell them three times. 
After that they were emancipated, or free of his autho- 
rity. For certain acts he could condemn his wife to 
death. He had the sole right of property. 

6. Slaves were few at the beginning, but with riches, 
conquests, and power multiplied enormously. In the lat- 
ter days of the republic they formed more than half of 
the population of Rome. Some rich families had from 
ten to twenty thousand slaves. They had no rights out- 
side of their master's will. They were simply chattels. 

7. Roman Law and Religion. — In the beginning the Ro- 
mans, being few, had few and simple laws. These were 
in some cases severe and capricious. As time went on 
and the republic developed they were altered and multi- 
plied. The Roman law was only drawn up in the reign 
of the Emperor Theodosins the Younger and Justinian. 

8. The Roman religion, simple at the beginning, caught 
much of its corruption from the Greeks. A multitude of 
divinities was introduced, the principal being Jupiter. 
Animals and sometimes human beings were offered in 

4. How did the Romans plant their colonies ? 5. Describe the Roman family. 
6. What of the slaves? 7. What of Roman law ? 8. What of religion ? Who 
was tho chief Roman divinity ? 



Rome — The Republic. 131 

sacrifice. The augurs were always consulted, even in 
families, on occasions of importance. They were simply 
fortune-tellers endowed with a priestly rank. Vestal vir- 
gins, or priestesses of Vesta, were employed to keep alive 
the fire, called sacred, that burned on the altar of that 
goddess. The feast-days became days of general debauch- 
ery, the result of a corrupt religion. 

9. Public Games and Shows. — The Eomans, like the 
Greeks, had a passion for public games. These began 
to assume their enormous dimensions after the second 
Punic war. They consisted of wrestling, horse and foot 
and chariot racing, boxing of various kinds, naval com- 
bats, and combats of wild beasts. They were very cruel 
and brutal for the most part. To them were added the 
gladiatorial combats of man with man, which, at first re- 
stricted to malefactors or men condemned to death, later 
on became a hideous profession. 

10. Perhaps nothing more tended to destroy the native 
Eoman virtue than demoralizing shows of this kind ; and 
the dangerous revolt of the gladiators under Spartacus 
shows to what an extent it was carried. They were po- 
pular up to the reign of Honorius, when Telemachus, a 
Christian hermit, threw himself between two gladiators 
and was struck dead by one of them. This heroic sacri- 
fice led to the abolition of the brutal spectacles. The 
theatrical performances of the Romans were in the main 
obscene and never reached the height of the Greek 
drama. 

What was the office of the augurs ? What of the vestal virgins ? What of 
the Roman feast days ? 9. Describe the public games. 10. How and under 
whom were the gladiatorial shows abolished ? What of the Eoman theatre ? 



132 HlSTOBY OF THE WORLD. [b.C. 29— A.D. 9 

THE EMPIRE, 

PAGAN AND CHRISTIAN (29 B.C-476 A.D.) 

The history of the Roman Empire is divided into three great periods : in the 
first (29 b.c-284 a.d.), called the Principate, the emperor governed with the 
support of the army and the senate ; in the second (284-395 a.d.) the Empire 
became monarchical and Christian ; in the third (395-476 a.d.) the Empire was 
divided into the "Western or Roman Empire and the Eastern or Empire of Con- 
stantinople. 



CHAPTEE I. 
THE PBINCIPATE (29 B.C-284 A.D.) 

SECTION I. The Family of Augustus (29 B.C.-68 A.D.) ; Birth of Chris- 
tianity ; First Persecution, under Nero. 

1. Assumption of Power by Octavius. — Octayius was 
named Augustus by the senate — a title hitherto only given 
to the gods. He soon acquired sovereign power by unit- 
ing in his own person all the ancient magisterial offices of 
the republic. He was named "Prince of the Senate" and 
was able to direct this assembly at his own will. He kept 
up the semblance of republican institutions, but was in 
reality an autocrat. 

2. Augustus Cse.sar. — Once actually master of Borne, he 
made a peaceful and wise ruler, and strove to heal the 
wounds which he and others had inflicted on his country. 
The people soon became reconciled to his rule and forgot 
in their prosperity the loss of the liberty which had cost 
them so dear. Augustus lived simply and with few or 
none of the marks of personal sovereignty. 

Give the periods of the Roman Empire. How was the Empire finally divided? 

1. What title was bestowed upon Octavius ? How did he acquire supreme power? 

2. What was the character of Augustus' rule ? What were his habits of life ? 



a.d. 9-14] Rome— The Empire. 133 

3. Conspiracies. — His reign was not wholly tranquil. It 
was embittered by the bad conduct of his children and dis- 
turbed by conspiracies. The most formidable of these was 
that under Cinna, the grandson of Pompey. Augustus 
had heaped favors upon Cinna, but nevertheless the latter 
sought his benefactor's life. Apprised of the plot, the em- 
peror called Oinna aside, recounted all he had done for 
him, and then laid bare to him the full details of the 
conspiracy. His clemency won Cinna over, and from that 
day out no conspiracy was formed against the person of 
Augustus. 

4. Defeat of Varus (A.D. 9). — Augustus, by means of his 
generals, vastly extended the Roman Empire. But his arms 
met with a great reverse in Germany, where Varus was in 
command. Advancing too far into a newly conquered 
country, Varus and his legions became entangled in the 
forest of Teutberg. Here the Germans fell upon and de- 
stroyed the Roman army. This disaster darkened the last 
years of Augustus' reign. 

5. The Roman Empire under Augustus. — To the Roman 
provinces were added Egypt and all the country between 
the Alps and the Danube. The Asturians and Cantab- 
rians were subdued in Spain ; the Germans were driven 
over the Rhine ; and the Parthians were compelled to 
give up the eagles taken from Crassus. The boundaries 
of the empire of Augustus were, on the west, the ocean 
from Mauritania to the mouth of the Rhine ; on the north, 
the Rhine, the Danube, and the Euxine Sea ; on the east, 
Armenia, the Euphrates, and the deserts of Arabia ; on 
the south, the cataracts of Syene, the Libyan deserts, 
and the chain of the Atlas. 

6. This vast territory was split up into thirty provinces 

3. Was the reign of Augustus peaceful ? Describe the conspiracy of Cinna. 
4. What befell Varus and his legions ? 5. Describe the conquests of Augustus 
in the East; in Spain; in Germany. Give the boundaries of the empire. 



134 History of the World. [a.d. 14 

outside of Italy, nineteen of them being imperial and eleven 
senatorial. The senate named annual proconsuls to govern, 
the senatorial provinces. The emperor appointed the gov- 
ernors of the imperial provinces, who were called "lieu- 
tenants of Caesar," "procurators," "presidents," or "pre- 
fects." Sixteen thousand men watched over the safety of 
Eome and the emperor ; while a standing army of four 
hundred thousand guarded the frontiers of the empire. 
Six fleets stationed at various points swept the seas. 
Eome itself contained more than four millions of in- 
habitants, and the empire one hundred and twenty mil- 
lions. 

7. The Augustan Age. — Augustus was a great patron of 
letters, and his name has been given to the most brilliant 
Latin literary era. Cicero had just gone, as had also the 
historians Sallust and Cornelius Nepos. But Livy came, 
and with him the poets Virgil, Horace, Ovid, all favored 
by the friendship of the emperor. The geographer Stra- 
bo belonged to his reign, the architect Vitruvius, and the 
learned Varro. Indeed, in literary excellence, -save in the 
drama and in oratory, the age of Augustus fell little be- 
hind the palmiest days of Greece. 

8. Birth of Jesus Christ. — At a time when the power of 
the world was thus unified in the empire of Eome and in 
the person of its emperor, the long-promised Eedeemer of 
man was born. Augustus ordered a general census of his 
empire. All the inhabitants of the provinces were com- 
manded to inscribe their names in the place where their 
family had its origin. Thus Mary and Joseph, both of 
whom were descendants of David, had to go to Bethle- 
hem to be enrolled. ( And there, as foretold by the pro- 
phets, our Lord Jesus Christ was born into the world in 

6. How was the empire divided ? Who governed the provinces ? What army 
and fleet had Rome ? Give the population of the city and empire. 7. Describe 
the Augustan age. 8. What great event occurred in the reign of Augustus ? 



a.d. 14-16] Rome— The Empire. 135 



the year of Borne 750 and fifteen years before the death 
of Augustus./ 

9. Tiberius' (A.D. 14-37). — To Augustus succeeded his 
stepson, Tiberius. He was little known to the people. He 
had won the favor of Augustus by a display of virtue 
and moderation. Once on the throne, he threw off the 
mask he had worn so long and showed his nature to be 
bloody, suspicious, and cruel. 

10. Germanicus. — Naturally his government came to be 
hated, and popular affection centred on Germanicus, his 
nephew, a young man endowed with every noble quality. 
Tiberius feared him and sent him against the Germans, 
who had formed a new league against the empire (a.d. 
16). Germanicus acted with such wisdom and modera- 
tion that he appeased the mutiny of the German legions, 
who wished to make him emperor. Crossing the Ehine 
at their head, he ravaged the country until he reached the 
spot where the legions of Varus had been destroyed. Their 
bleached bones and relics of the battle were all that was 
left. 

11. The army, moved with indignation and sorrow, 
marched on in search of the enemy. Arminius, the Ger- 
man leader, used every stratagem to defeat the Eomans, 
but at each encounter he was beaten, and would have 
been wholly conquered had not Tiberius' jealousy re- 
called Germanicus. His return was a triumph, which only 
caused the emperor to hate him the more. He sent him 
next to the East, and there had him poisoned. All the 
empire mourned Germanicus. It was now the prey of the 
cruel . Tiberius. 

12. Tiberius at Capreae. — To escape public indignation 
he retired for several years to the island of Capreae, where 

9. Who succeeded Augustus ? What was his character ? 10. Who was Ger- 
manicus? On what expedition was he sent? 11. Who led the Germans? Why 
was Germanicus recalled? What befell him ? 



136 History of the World. [a.d. 16-37 

lie gave himself up to debauchery and cruelty. . He paid an 
army of spies, and on their testimony a multitude of in- 
nocent persons were condemned and executed. The senate, 
seeing its most illustrious members fall, was terrified into 
submission to anything the tyrant decreed. 

13. The government was confided to Sejanus, a man as 
crafty and cruel as the emperor himself. He aspired to 
the throne, and was making his way to it when a letter 
from the emperor to the senate exposed him, and he was 
massacred by the Eoman populace. The cruelty of Tibe- 
rius increased with his suspicions, and his debaucheries kept 
pace with both. His health failed and he fell into swoons. 
In one of these he seemed dead, but, showing signs of re- 
covering consciousness, his attendants smothered him with 
pillows (a.d. 37). 

14. Death of Jesus Christ (A.D. 33). — Meanwhile our Lord 
had lived His life on earth, preached His doctrine, called 
His apostles, worked His miracles, and crowned His work 
by the sacrifice of His life on Calvary. He rose from the 
dead and ascended visibly from the earth. From Him and 
from these events was born the Christian Church, which 
was to change the world and renew the face of the earth. 

15. Caligula (A.D. 37-41). — Tiberius was bad, but his 
successor, Caligula, was even worse. He was the son of 
Germanicus, and grandson by adoption of Tiberius, and 
as unworthy of his father as he was natural successor of 
his grandfather. This wholly vicious creature commanded 
that divine honors be paid him ; and Rome had sunk so 
low in virtue and honor that he was obeyed. Within two 
years his frightful extravagance exhausted the treasury of 
the empire. To fill it he proscribed right and left, and 
seized upon the property of the wealthiest citizens. In fact, 

12. Tell of Tiberius at Caprece. How did he rule Rome ? 13. What part did 
Sejanus play? What befell Sejanus ? How did Tiberius die? 14. What great 
event occurred in a.d. 33 ? 15. Who succeeded Tiberius 1 Describe Caligula, 



a.d. 37-54] Rome— The Empire. 137 

lie used Eome as a vicious child uses its toys. He had a 
palace built for his horse and appointed the animal con- 
sul. He was slain by conspirators in the fourth year of a 
reign of horrible excess. He was probably partially insane. 

16. Claudius (A.D. 41-54). — The praetorian guards, who 
slew Caligula, searching the palace, found Claudius, bro- 
ther of Germanicus and uncle of Caligula, hiding away for 
fear. He was about fifty years of age, and had lived in 
retirement hitherto. Him they chose as successor to Cali- 
gula. He became a mere instrument in the hands of his 
wife and her favorites. His wife, Messalina, an infamous 
woman, was put to death. He chose another wife in Agrip- 
pina, daughter of Germanicus. Influenced by her, he adopt- 
ed as heir Nero, her son by a former marriage. When 
Claudius seemed disposed to restore his own son, Britan- 
nicus, to the succession, Agrippina caused him to be poi- 
soned. 

17. Nero (A.D. 54-68). — Nero was only seventeen when 
he succeeded Claudius. His accession was well liked by the 
people. Burrhus, commander of the guards, and Seneca 
the philosopher had been his tutors. He soon cut loose 
from their guidance and gave himself up wholly to cruelty 
and every kind of vice. He began by poisoning at his own 
table Britannicus, his adopted brother. He caused his 
mother to be stabbed. He murdered, his first wife and 
his second. Even his tutor, Seneca, was not spared. He 
and the poet Lucan were condemned as conspirators, and 
Eome began to reek with the blood of its most illustrious 
citizens. 

18. He caused the city to be set on fire (a.d. 64), and 
two-thirds of it was destroyed. He laid the blame on the 
Christians, then a new and mysterious sect in Eome. An 

16. Who succeeded Caligula % Whom did Claudius many and adopt ? What 
befell Claudius % 17. How did Nero begin his reign ? What illustrious persons 
did he condemn ? 18. Whom did Nero accuse of burning Rome ? 



138 History of the World. [a.d. 54-68 

edict of general persecution was issued against them. SS. 
Peter and Paul, who had planted the Church in Eome, as 
in other cities, were among the first victims of this perse- 
cution. Other Christian martyrs were tortured with fiend- 
ish cruelty and in sight of the emperor and populace. 

19. Corbulo and the Parthians. — The Parthians invading 
Armenia, Corbulo, the ablest general of the time, was sent 
against them. On arriving in Syria he found an undisci- 
plined and disorganized force. He restored order and soon 
became master of Armenia. Artaxata, the capital, was ta- 
ken and burned. Tigranocerta, another important city, sur- 
rendered. The Parthians sued for peace, which was grant- 
ed, and Armenia was restored to a Parthian prince on con- 
dition of his paying homage to the emperor. 

20. Death of Nero (A.D. 68). — Meanwhile Nero was seek- 
ing new depths of degradation. He became a mere buffoon, 
while retaining all his ferocity. Home grew weary of him. 
Galba, the governor of Spain, raised the standard of revolt. 
Nero concocted new plans of vengeance and blood, but all 
the empire rose against him. He hid himself in terror, 
and when the soldiers approached to capture him fell on 
his own sword. With him ended the Augustan family. 

SECTION II. The three Military Usurpers (68-69 A.D.) ; the three Princes 
of the Flavian Family (69-96 A.D.) ; the Catacombs. 

21. Galba, Otho, and Vitellius. — The Eoman Empire was 
beginning to break up f*om its very vastness as well as 
from its corruption at home. It was now a prey for mili- 
tary adventurers. The Spanish legions, jealous of the Eo- 
man praetorian guards, themselves named an emperor in 
the person of their governor, Galba. He was seventy years 
of age, but still a man of strong character. Arriving in 

Who fell under Nero's persecution ? 19. Describe the expedition of Cor- 
bulo. The result of the expedition ? 20. Describe the close of Nero's reign. 21. 
How did the disruption of the Koman Empire begin ? Who was Galba ? 



a.d. 68-791 Rome— The Empire. 139 

Borne, he refused the guards there the customary gratuity 
which they demanded. But he soon gave way to avarice 
and favoritism. He was slain in a revolt of the praeto- 
rian guards instigated by Otho, a former lieutenant of 
his. Otho was proclaimed emperor. His title was disputed 
by Vitellius, whom the German legions proclaimed. Otho, 
beaten at Bedriacum, took his own life, and Vitellius suc- 
ceeded, only to give the Romans an example of shameful 
gluttony. The legions of the East proclaimed a new empe- 
ror — Vespasian. 

22. Vespasian (A.D. 69). — Nero had sent Vespasian to 
quell the Jewish revolt. He subdued the whole of Pales- 
tine, with the exception of Jerusalem. Proclaimed empe- 
ror by his legions, he resolved on starving Eome into sub- 
mission, and stopped the supply of corn from Egypt, on 
which the great city largely depended. Antonius Primus, 
one of his generals, crossed the Alps at the head of the 
Illyrian legions, defeated the army sent against him by 
Vitellius, took the camp in front of Cremona, captured 
the city, and reduced it to ashes. This he did in a day 
and a night, and, marching on Eome, entered it. Vitel- 
lius was slain by the populace. 

23. Vespasian's Reforms. — Titus Elavius Vespasian was 
head of the great Flavian family. His reign was peace- 
ful. He set to work to reform abuses on all sides, in the 
senate as in the city. He set the much-needed example 
of a life of extreme simplicity and moderation. His chief 
vice was avarice. With this exception his ten years of 
reign were most beneficial to Eome and to the empire. 

24. Titus. — His son Titus succeeded him. Titus had 
taken Jerusalem after a terrible siege, and destroyed the 
Temple. His character may be judged by the title be- 

What befell Galba 1 Tell of Otho and Vitellius. Whom did the Eastern legions 
proclaim? 22. What of Vespasian and the Jews ? How did Vespasian over- 
come Vitellius % 23. Describe Vespasian's reforms. 24. Who succeeded him ? 



140 History of the World. [a.d. 79-96 

stowed on him of the "Delight of Mankind." His reign 
lasted only two years and two months, when he died, it 
was supposed, of poison at the hands of his brother Domi- 
tian. 

25. Eruption of Vesuvius (A.D. 78).— The reign of Ti- 
tus is memorable for a great eruption of Mount Vesuvi- 
us, in which Pliny, the famous naturalist, perished, while 
his celebrated nephew, Pliny the Younger, barely escaped. 
The city of Herculaneum was completely buried under 
the burning lava, and was only discovered in 1710 at a 
depth of sixty feet beneath the village of Portici, near 
Naples. Houses, streets; furniture, everything, were found 
much as they had been left at the time of the eruption. 

26. Domitian (A.D. 81-96). — Domitian succeeded Titus. 
He was a cruel and avaricious man. He was afraid to 
attack the hordes that were hovering and raiding on the 
frontiers of the empire ; but he gave himself lofty titles 
such as were bestowed on the great Roman conquerors of 
old. Julius Agricola, one of his lieutenants, conquered 
Britain (a.d. 86), but was recalled through the jealousy 
of the emperor and condemned to live the rest of his 
days in obscurity. His campaign and character, however, # 
survived in the brilliant pages of his son-in-law; Tacitus, 
the great historian, as did also the character of Domitian. 

27. Second Persecution of the Christians (A.D. 93-96). — 
Domitian's native cruelty found vent on the Christians, 
who were constantly multiplying. He published an edict 
against them and set on foot a bloody persecution. St. 
John the Evangelist was one of the victims. Escaping 
death miraculously, he was banished to the island of Pat- 
mos, where he wrote the Apocalypse. Domitian, after a 
reign of fifteen years, fell a victim to a conspiracy on the 

For what was Titus famous ? 25. What disaster occurred in the reign of Titus ? 
26. Who succeeded Titus ? What was Domitian's character ? What conquest 
was made by Agricola ? 27. Describe Domitian's persecution. What of St. John ? 



a.d. 96-102] Rome — The Empire. 141 

part of his wife and chief officers just as he was planning 
their massacre. 

28. The Catacombs. — The Christians, being the objects of 
persecution, took refuge in caves beneath the city of Home, 
which were called the Catacombs. These, with their wind- 
ings and chambers, literally constituted a city beneath a 
city. There ihey buried the martyrs ; there they met in 
conference and to worship. Nothing more solemn or beau- 
tiful is known in history. It was not till the reign of 
Constantine that the Christian Church merged from this 
darkness into the light of day, although the work of con- 
version and of Christian life was constantly carried on in 
secret, and in spite of all danger, up and down through the 
great pagan city, even into the palace of the Caesars. 

SECTION HI. The Antoaines (96-192 A.D.); the Prsetorian Emperors 
(192-193 A.D.) 

29. fferva (A.D. 96-98) ; Trajan (A.D. 98-117).— To Do- 
mitian succeeded ISTerva. He was placed on the throne 
by his colleagues of the senate. He was the first emperor 
of foreign extraction, his family coming from Crete. He 
reigned but a few months, but his reign gave great pro- 
mise of good things. He opened the prisons, where so 
many lay unjustly condemned, recalled the exiles, and 
prohibited the persecution of the Christians. He adopt- 
ed and named Trajan as his successor. Trajan was a man 
of as great civic virtue as warlike capacity. On his mo- 
dest entry into Rome and accession he was at once named 
"Optimus" (the best); and he deserved his title. 

30. Trajan's Conquests. — The Dacians had forced a shame- 
ful peace from Domitian. Trajan marched against them, 
bridged the Danube, conquered them, and reduced their 

28. What were the Catacombs 1 For what purposes were they used ? 29. De- 
scrihothe reign of Eerva. Who succeeded Nerva 1 What was Trajan's charac- 
ter ? What title was given him ? 30. What of Trajan and the Dacians ? 



142 History of the World. [ A .d. 102-135 

country to a province of Rome (a.d. 102). Thence he 
passed to Armenia, which the restless Parthians had again 
seized. Armenia soon was his. Mesopotamia and Assyria 
followed, and a part of Arabia (a.d. 106). Trajan de- 
scended the Persian Gulf to the ocean and visited the 
ruins of Babylon. When on the point of destroying the 
Parthian empire he suddenly died (a.d. 117). His vir- 
tues, though great, were pagan ; nor was he without pagan 
vices. 

31. Third Christian Persecution (A.D. 102-116).— Trajan 
set in force the third persecution against the Christians. 
Pliny the Younger, governor of Bithynia, asked how he 
should deal with the Christians. Pliny testified to their 
numbers and virtues, but complained that because of them 
the temples of the gods were deserted. Trajan replied 
that the Christians were not to be hunted, but if accused 
the laws should be enforced against them. The laws meant 
punishment Avith death for refusing to sacrifice to the pa- 
gan gods. St. Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, was the most 
illustrious victim of this persecution. By Trajan's own 
order the martyr was exposed to wild beasts in the Ro- 
man amphitheatre, and so perished. 

32. Hadrian (A.D. 117-138).— Hadrian, nephew and 
successor of Trajan, was a man of peace. He let Trajan's 
conquests go and confined the empire within its former 
limits. He was a man of extraordinary and cultivated men- 
tal qualities. He was jealous, however, of literary supe- 
riority, was inconstant in friendship, and his debaucheries 
were a scandal. 

33. Jewish Eevolt and Dispersion (A.D. 135).— The Jews 
had revolted against Trajan, but were subdued. Again 
they rose against his successor, under Barcochebas, a bri- 

Describo Trajan's conquests in the East. 31. How did Trajan treat the Chris- 
tians 1 What was Pliny's testimony ahout the Christians ? How did St. Ignatius 
of Antioch die ? 32. What was Hadrian's policy and character ? 



a. d. 135-174] Rome — The Empire. 1-13 

gancl, who called himself the Messias. Six hundred thou- 
sand of them perished, and the disaster was supreme. 
The race was dispersed, and Hadrian built a new Jerusa- 
lem, called iElia Capitohna, which included Calvary with- 
in its limits. But the Jews were forbidden to enter it. 

34. Antoninus Pius (A.D. 138-161). — Antoninus, Ha- 
drian's adopted son, succeeded. He was called "Pius," or 
filial, because of his love for his parents. He was a good 
prince, laboring quietly for the welfare of his empire. 

35. Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 161-180); Lucius Verus (A.D. 
161-169). — Marcus Aurelius, son-in-law of Antoninus, suc- 
ceeded, and took as colleague Lucius Verus, his adopted 
brother. Verus gave himself up to vice and soon died. 
Marcus Aurelius was a man of singular virtue. Doubtless 
the influence of Christianity was telling secretly on the 
well-disposed pagans. 

36. War with the Parthians (A.D. 162); Fourth Perse- 
cution (A.D. 166). — The Parthians had again invaded Ar- 
menia under their king, Vologeses. Marcus Aurelius 
sent Avidius Cassius against him. Vologeses was beaten. 
Cassius passed the Euphrates, advanced to and burned 
the cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon. But the army on 
their return brought a pestilence into Europe. Multi- 
tudes fell victims to it, and the blame was laid on the 
Christians. The emperor renewed the edicts of perse- 
cution, and the martyrdoms recommenced. St. Polycarp, 
Bishop of Smyrna, was burned alive, and numbers of 
confessors of the faith suffered death. 

37. War with the Germans (A.D. 174).— The German 
tribes formed a formidable league against their conquerors. 
In great numbers they forced the passages of the Danube 
and the Alps, and seized upon Aquileia, in Venetia. Mar- 

33. How did Hadrian- treat the revolted Jews? 34. Who succeeded Hadrian? 
35. Who succeeded Antoninus ? What was the character of Aurelius ? 36. What 
of the Parthians ? What caused the new persecution? 37. Tell of the Germans. 



144 History of the World. [a.d. 174-193 

cus Aurelius drove them back over the Danube. In the 
pursuit he found himself and his army surrounded in the 
mountains of Bohemia by the hostile Quadi and perish- 
ing with thirst. Here, as recorded by pagan writers, the 
prayers and valor of a Christian legion, called the "Thun- 
dering," turned defeat into a great victory and had the 
effect of checking for a time the persecution of the Chris- 
tians. The war continued to the end of the emperor's 
reign. He died at Vienna. 

38. Commodus (A.D. 180-192). — Commodus succeeded to 
the throne but not to the virtues of his father. His 
great strength, in which he gloried, led him to contend 
in the arena with the gladiators in sight of the Roman 
people. He was a brutal and cruel creature, devoured by 
ignoble passions. He died of poison. 

39. Pertinax and Didius (A.D. 193). — Pertinax, an able 
man of common birth, was chosen emperor. His reforms 
were too trying to the praetorian guards, who, after three 
months, revolted and slew him. The empire was then put 
up by them for sale at public auction, and was purchased 
by Didius Julianus, a wealthy senator. Such an act out- 
raged even degenerate Eome. The armies on the frontier 
proclaimed three several emperors. One of these, Septi- 
mius Severus, commander in Illyria, was first on the march 
to Rome. Didius was abandoned and condemned to death 
by the senate. 

40. The Christian Apologists. — The second century of the 
Christian era was now far advanced, and numbers of Chris- 
tians were found in every province of the Roman Empire. 
To persecution and death the pagans added all sorts of vile 
calumnies and lies regarding Christian faith and practice. 
To these Christians of great knowledge and ability replied 

Tell of the " Thundering Legion." 33. Describe the reign of Commodus. 39. 
What followed on the death of Commodus 1 How did Didius obtain the throne ? 
What became of Didius ? 40. Were the Christians numerous at this time 'i 



a'.d. 193-208] Rome— The Empire. 145 

in writings that are still guides to the Church. St. Justin 
Martyr was one of the most illustrious of these apologists. 
His second epistle, addressed to Marcus Aurelius, won for 
the holy author the crown of martyrdom. Later on Ter- 
tullian wrote his famous apology for Christianity. This 
in itself was a death-blow to paganism. Origen was an- 
other great writer in the same cause. 

41. Latin Writers after Augustus. — With Augustus de- 
clined the great era of Latin writers. Elegant and forci- 
ble writers came after him, but the old grace, beauty, and 
strength were gone. Phasdrus wrote his Fables, and Mar- 
tial his stinging Epigrams, and Juvenal his fierce and for- 
cible Satires ; but still it was the period of decline. There 
was no Cicero or Livy, no Virgil or Horace. There were 
a multitude of writers, but they were not great. Tacitus, 
the historian, alone was worthy to rank among his prede- 
cessors. 

SECTION IV. The Syrian Princes (193-235 A.D.); Military Anarchy 
(235-268 A.D.) ; the Illyrian Princes (268-284 A.D.) 

42. Septimius Severus (A.D. 193-211) ; Fifth Persecution 
(A.D. 203). — Septimius Severus was of African extraction 
and the first of the princes called Syrian, because he mar- 
ried a Syrian woman whose accession to the throne had 
been predicted. After defeating Didius he had to encoun- 
ter his rivals, Niger in the East and Albinus in the West. 
Niger he crushed in the defiles of Mount Taurus, and Al- 
binus near Lyons, in Caul. His treatment of the van- 
quished was very cruel. He was treacherous and avari- 
cious, and the author of a new persecution of the Chris- 
tians, in which thousands perished at Lyons alone, among 
them St. Irenseus, the disciple of St. Polycarp. In other 

What of the Apologists % 41. Describe the condition of Latin literature after 
the Augustan era. Name some of the writers. 42. How did Septimius Severus 
gain the throne % How did he treat the Christians % 



146 History of the World. [a.d. 208-222 

respects the emperor was a man of strong character, frugal, 
vigilant, braye, and a master of military science. He 
wrested Mesopotamia from the Parthians. His last expe- 
dition was against the Caledonians, in the north of Bri- 
tain (a.d. 208). To prevent their inroads on the south 
he raised a wall extending from sea to sea, which was 
called after his name. 

43. Caracalla (A.D. 211-217). — Oaracalla, son and suc- 
cessor of Severus, had already attempted to murder his 
father. One of his first acts on the throne was to stran- 
gle Geta, his brother and colleague, in the arms of their 
mother. He was a monster in human form. Having 
condemned Macrinus, commander of the guards, to death, 
Macrinus forestalled his sentence by killing Caracalla and 
mounting the throne in his stead. 

44. Macrinus (A.D. 217-218); Heliogabalus (A.D. 218- 
222). — Macrinus' brief reign was put an end to by his 
own soldiers, who slew him and set Heliogabalus on the 
throne. Heliogabalus was cousin-german to Caracalla and 
high-priest of the sun in Syria. He was a mixture of ef- 
feminacy and ferocity, and the lowest depths of depravity 
seemed reached in his person. He perished miserably, and 
was succeeded by Alexander Severus. 

45. Alexander Severus (A.D. 222-235). — Again was de- 
caying Eome granted the favor of a good prince. Alex- 
ander Severus, though remaining in the old Eoman ways, 
was Christian in his life and love of virtue. In his palace 
he had a chapel, where he kept the images of Christ, of 
Abraham, of Orpheus, and of other benefactors of the hu- 
man race. He had to contend against the Persians in the 
east and the Germans in the north- The Parthian em- 
pire, which had resisted all the efforts of the Eomans, fell 

Describe the character and conquests of Septimius. 43. Describe the reign of 
Caracalla. 44. Describe the reigns of Macrinus and Heliogabalus. 45. Who 
succeeded Heliogabalus ? What was the character of Alexander Severus ? 



a.d. 222-241] Rome — The Empire. 147 

under Artaxerxes, a disgraced general, who in revenge de- 
throned his sovereign and set up the kingdom of Persia 
(a.d. 226). Thus fell the Parthian empire after lasting- 
five centuries (b.o. 225-a.d. 226). The kingdom founded 
by Artaxerxes lasted 426 years (a.d. 226-652). 

46. Alexander took Mesopotamia from Artaxerxes, but 
lack of discipline among his troops prevented him pursu- 
ing his conquest. On the other hand, he had to repel the 
Germans, who had invaded Gaul, and while driving them 
over the Ehine he was assassinated by Maximin, who took 
the title of emperor. 

47. Military Usurpers (A.D. 235-288).— With the mur- 
der of Alexander began a long series of usurpations and 
counter-usurpations which drenched Some and the empire 
in blood. In an interval of fifty years there were fifty 
Caesars. The soldiers made and unmade emperors at their 
will, and universal anarchy reigned, while the barbarians 
encroached upon tlie borders and gradually menaced Eome. 

48. Maximin I. (A.D. 235-238) ; Sixth Persecution.— 
Maximin, originally a herdsman, became a soldier, and by 
his prodigious strength and valor rose rapidly until he 
seized the throne. He was as brutal as he was strong, set 
on foot a fierce persecution of the Christians, and finally 
fell a victim to the same kind of conspiracy that brought 
him to the throne. 

49. Decius (A.D. 249-251); Seventh Persecution.— 
Among Maximin's immediate successors, who all suffered 
violent deaths, the two principal were Gordian III. (a.d. 
238-244) and Philip the Arab (a.d. 244-249). Gordian 
III. routed the Persians, while the tribune Aurelian van- 
quished the Franks near Mayence (a.d. 241). The 
Franks, whose name now begins to appear in history, 

What became of the Parthian Empire ? 46. Did Alexander succeed in his 
wars? Howdidhodie? 47. Whatfollowed on his death ? 48. Describe Maximin 
and his reign. 49. What followed on Haxirnm's death ? What of the Pranks % 



148 History of the World. [a.d. 241-260 

were a combination of German tribes who lived between 
the Ehine and the Weser. Philip the Arab restored Me- 
sopotamia to the Persians and celebrated the thousandth 
anniversary of Eome by great public games, which were 
the last of their kind. Then came Decius, who is chiefly 
memorable for his relentless persecution of the Christians 
and for his miserable end. Setting out in pursuit of the 
Goths, he was treacherously entangled in a marsh, where 
he perished with his army. 

50. Gallus (AD. 251-253); -ffimilian (AD. 253).— Gal- 
lus, lieutenant of Decius, caused himself to be proclaimed 
emperor, and at once concluded a disgraceful treaty with 
the Goths. He was slain by his soldiers, and his successor, 
iEmilian, soon suffered the same fate. 

51. Valerian I. (AD. 253-260) ; Eighth Persecution (AD. 
258). — When Valerian, the third successor of Decius, as- 
cended the throne, Sapor L, King of Persia, invaded the 
Asian provinces of the empire and took ISTisibis and Edessa. 
Valerian hastened to Edessa, and Sapor, inviting him to a 
conference, treacherously took him prisoner. He was sub- 
jected to every kind of indignity, and, after three years of 
horrible captivity, was put to death, then flayed, and his 
skin, dyed red, was hung up in a temple as a sign of dis- 
grace to the Eomans. 

52. Gallienus (A.D. 260-268) and the Thirty Tyrants — 
Gallienus, son of Valerian, gave himself up to a life of 
indulgence. He made no attempt either to free his fa- 
ther or repel the Persians. A dreadful pestilence, called 
the "Fifteen Years' Plague" (a.d. 250-265), desolated 
Eome and the provinces. Civil war added to the cup of 
Eoman misery. There were so many claimants for the 
throne that the epoch has been called the "Eeign of the 

How was the thousandth anniversary of Eome celebrated 1 For what is Decius 
remembered 1 ? 50. What of Gallus and JEmilian? 51. Who opposed Valerian? 
What was Valerian's end 1 52. Describe the reign of Gallienus. 



a.d. 260-276] Rome — The Empire. 149 

Thirty Tyrants." In combating one of these Gallienus 
perished at the hands of his own soldiers, and Claudius 
was proclaimed emperor. 

53. Claudius II (A.D. 268-270).— Claudius, called the 
Illyrian from his place of birth, was a man of firmness 
and worth. He repelled the barbarians, destroyed an army 
of three hundred thousand Goths and a fleet of two thou- 
sand sail that had invaded Macedonia. Just after this great 
achievement he died of the. plague and left the throne to 
Aurelian. 

54. Aurelian (AD. 270-275) and Zenobia ; Xinth Perse- 
cution (AD. 274). — Aurelian, renowned for his victory over 
the Franks, began his reign by driving the Vandals, Ger- 
mans, and other invaders out of Italy. He then turned 
to the East, where Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, a woman 
of great qualities, had seized a part of Asia. Aurelian 
defeated the warrior-queen in two battles, and she shut 
herself up in Palmyra. Aurelian invested the city, and, 
provisions beginning to fail, Zenobia herself left the city 
to seek help from the Persians (a.d. 273). Aurelian sent 
a detachment of cavalry in pursuit. They came up with 
and captured her when about to cross the Euphrates. 
The captive queen was taken to Rome and granted a beau- 
tiful villa at Tibur, where she lived as a Eoman lady. Au- 
relian died soon after. He issued an edict against the 
Christians. 

55. Tacitus (A.D. 275-276).— After Aurelian's death the 
senate and army yielded to each other the choice of his 
successor. For six months the friendly and unusual con- 
test was waged, no disturbance occurring in the interval. 
Finally the senate named Tacitus, a senator of great wis- 
dom. He was an old man, a relative of Tacitus the his- 

53. Describe the reign of Claudius the Illyrian. 54. How did Aurelian begin 
his reign? What befell Zenobia? How did Aurelian treat the Christians? 
55. What followed on the death of Aurelian ? Who was chosen emperor ? 



150 History of the World. [a.d. 276-284 

torian. He accepted the dangerous honor with reluctance, 
and after a few months was slain. 

56. Probus (A.D. 276-282).— The army chose Probus, a 
man of obscure birth but high moral character, bravery, 
and ability. The barbarians were pressing on the empire 
on all sides. Probus successfully routed them all, He 
then set out for the East to check the Persians. The 
king of Persia, astonished at the suddenness of his ap- 
pearance on the mountains of Armenia, sent ambassadors 
to negotiate peace. They found the emperor seated on 
the grass eating his dinner of pea-soup and salt pork. He 
gave a brief message of command to the king and invited 
them to share his meal, if hungry; if not, to go their way 
at once. Such summary speech convinced the king. He 
went in person to the camp and concluded peace on the 
conditions of Probus. The emperor who had restored 
Eome's glory was soon after slain in a revolt of the sol- 
diers. 

57. Carus (A.D. 282-283), Numerian (A.D. 283-284), 
and Carinas. — Carus, commander of the praetorian guard, 
who was chosen to succeed, showed himself worthy of his 
predecessor. Having concpiered Mesopotamia, he was ad- 
vancing on Persia when he was suddenly found dead in 
his tent on the banks of the Tigris. Aper, his minister, 
spread the report that the emperor was struck by light- 
ning, and, to prove his fidelity, proclaimed Carinus and 
Numerian, the sons of Carus. 

58. Numerian was soon after assassinated, and the wrath- 
ful generals proclaimed one of themselves, Diocletian. Dio- 
cletian summoned Aper before the army, and, denouncing 
him as the assassin of the emperor, plunged his sword into 
his heart. Carinns was murdered soon after, and Diocle- 

56. How did Probus act? Describe his Persian campaign and bis death. 
57. Who was chosen to succeed ? What befell Carus ? Who proclaimed his suc- 
cessors ? 58. What of Diocletian ? What became of Aper and Carus' sons ? 



a.d. 284-292] Rome— The Empire. 151 

tian was possessed of sole power. From the reign of 
Commodus twenty-two of the twenty-five occupants of the 
throne had perished by assassination. 



CHAPTEE II. 

THE MONARCHICAL (284-312 A.D.) AND CHRISTIAN 
EMPIRE (313-395 A.D.) 

The Empire became an absolute monarchy under Diocletian and Constan- 
tino. Constantine secured the triumph of Christianity. 

SECTION I. Diocletian (284-305 A.D.) ; Constantine the Great (306- 
337 A.D.) ; Edict of Milan (A.D. 313). 

1. Diocletian consolidates his Power. — Diocletian, born 
at Salona, in Dalmatia, was a man of bravery and skill. 
He had risen from the ranks. On entering Rome he de- 
stroyed what was left of the power of the senate, and 
replaced the turbulent praetorian guards by the Illyrian 
legions, who were devoted to him. To defend the fron- 
tiers he associated with himself Maximian, a soldier of for- 
tune but an able general (a.d. 286). 

2. Constantius Chlorus and Galerius. — The two emperors 
secured the dominion of the empire. They overcame all 
obstacles, Diocletian being the brain of all the movements. 
He created two Caesars, who were lieutenants with right 
of succession to the emperors (a.d. 292). The first was 
Constantius Chlorus, a man of great worth and valor, who 
was father of the great Constantine. The second was Ga- 
lerius, a peasant's son, and a man whose only law was his 
sword. Galerius resided at Sirmium, Constantius at Treves, 

1. How did Diocletian treat the senate and the prtetorian guards % Whom did 
he choose as associate and why ? 2. What further steps did Diocletian take to 
guard the empire ? What is meant by the Tetrarchy ? Name the tetrarchs. 



152 History of the World. [a.d. 293-306 

Maximian at Milan, and Diocletian at Mconiedia. The 
government was known as that of the " Tetrarchy." 

3. Diocletian was really the supreme head, and proyed 
his title by his brilliant expedition against the Persians. 
Galerius being worsted at Carrhse, Diocletian took the 
field himself and gained a speedy yictory. Galerius after- 
wards wiped out his disgrace by several brilliant successes, 
when, weary of playing an inferior part, he aspired to sup- 
plant Diocletian. 

4. Tenth. Persecution (A.D. 303). — Galerius hated Chris- 
tians, and constantly urged Diocletian to publish an edict 
against them. The emperor, who was on the whole a 
moderate man, refused. Galerius then twice set fire to 
the palace at ISTicomedia, charging the Christians with 
the deed, and flying, as he said, to avoid being burned by 
them. Diocletian at last yielded and signed the decree 
ordering the most bloody persecution that the Church had 
yet endured (a.d. 303). It was called the "Era of 
Martyrs." 

5. Diocletian abdicates (A.D. 305). — The old emperor 
began to decline in mind and body. Galerius persuaded 
him to name as new Caesars Maximin and Severus, crea- 
tures of Galerius. He next compelled both Diocletian 
and Maximian to make a solemn abdication of the throne. 
The remaining nine years of his life Diocletian passed in 
retirement at Padua, happy in having resigned the care 
of the empire for the care of his garden. 

6. Constantine (A.D. 306-337). — Galerius proved a cruel 
and avaricious ruler. Jealous of Constantine, son of his 
colleague, Constantius Chlorus, he tried all he could to 
keep him near his person in order to destroy him. But 
the young man escaped to his father, who, dying soon 

3. Who was head of the Tetrarchy ? What of Diocletian and Galerius ? 
4. Describe the tenth persecution of the Christians. 5. How did Galerius influ- 
ence Diocletian ? Who abdicated ? 6. What of Constantino 1 



a.d. 306-313] Rome — The Empire. 153- 

after, left liis portion of the empire to his son. To Con- 
stantine thus fell Britain, Gaul, and Spain. 

7. The rest of the empire was divided between G-alerius 
and his two Caesars. These oppressed the people by their 
exactions. Maxentius, son of Maximian, made himself 
master of Italy. Killing Severus, he chose his own father 
as his colleague ; and Galerius, feeling the strength of his 
new rival, named his friend Licinius to succeed Severus. 

8. Anarchy; Triumph of Constantine. — There were thus 
six hostile emperors in the field. Maximian tried to mur- 
der his son, Maxentius, and his son-in-law, Constantine. 
He at last committed suicide (a.d. 310). Constantine 
alone endeared himself to the hearts of the people. Gale- 
rius was attacked with a frightful disease and perished 
miserably at Sardica (a.d. 311). Constantine was called to 
Borne by the voice of the people. He marched into Italy. 

9. At this time he was hesitating whether or not to 
embrace Christianity. Moved by grace and by miracu- 
lous signs, he adopted the standard of Christ's cross as 
the standard of the Roman armies. Meeting Maxentius 
near the gates of Some, he beat him back to the Melvian 
bridge on the Tiber. The bridge gave way under the 
number of fugitives, and Maxentius, with many of his 
troops, was drowned. Constantine entered Eome in tri- 
umph and amid universal acclamation (a.d. 312). 

10. Maximin attempted to murder Licinius, but he was 
defeated and besieged in Tarsus. Fearful of falling into 
the hands of the enemy, he took poison and died in hor- 
rible agony (a.d. 313). Licinius alone remained to oppose 
Constantine. Like the others, he had been a bitter per- 
secutor of the Christians. He marched against Constan- 
tine with an army composed entirely of pagans. They met 

7. How and among whom was the empire now divided 1 8. Describe the an- 
archy that ensued. 9. What moved Constantine to Christianity ? How did he 
enter Rome 1 10. What befell Maximin ? Describe Constantine's final victory. 



154 History of the World. [a.d. 313-337 

near Adrianople ; Licinius offering victims to the gods be- 
fore the battle, and Constantine preparing for it by prayer. 
Constantine's victory was complete. Licinius surrendered 
his provinces on condition of his life being spared ; but 
being detected in an after-intrigue for the renewal of the 
war, he was put to death (a.d. 324). 

11. Triumph of Christianity. — Constantine, now sole mas- 
ter of the empire, strove to heal its wounds. In the year 
a.d. 313 he published the famous Edict of Milan, which 
put an end to persecution and granted the free exercise 
of the Christian religion. Idolatry rapidly disappeared 
before the light of truth. In the reign of Constantine 
was held the first oecumenical council of the Church, at 
Nice (a.d. 325), to condemn the heresy of Arius, who de- 
nied the divinity of Christ, and who had led great num- 
bers into error, Constantine himself favoring him. 

12. Founding of Constantinople (A.D. 330). — Constantine, 
urged by the false representations of his wife, put to death 
two of his children, whose innocence was afterwards made 
plain. Stricken with remorse, he left Eome, which had 
become hateful to him, and resolved on founding a new 
city and capital for the empire. He selected the site of 
the ancient Byzantium, on the strait that separates Asia 
from Europe. There he built a magnificent city called, 
after himself, Constantinople. 

13. Death of Constantine. — Though now over sixty, Con- 
stantine marched against Sapor II., King of Persia, who 
menaced Mesopotamia. The terror of the emperor's name 
alone sufficed to drive Sapor back. Shortly after Constan- 
tine received baptism and died. According to the consti- 
tution begun by Diocletian and completed by Constantine, 
the emperor was invested with absolute and undivided 

11. What was the Edict of Milan 1 Its results 1 What famous council was 
held and for what purpose 1 12. What city did Constantine found and why ? 13. 
What of Sapor II. % How did Constantine complete the imperial constitution ? 



a.d. 337-355] Rome — The Empire. 155 

power. His person was sacred and his will was law. 
Seven ministers, chosen by him, were charged with the 
administration of affairs. He created a new order of no- 
bility to supersede all others. The system was extended 
throughout the provinces, and the last vestige of republi- 
can institutions disappeared. 

SECTION II. The three Sons of Constantine: Constantius (337-361 A.D.), 
Constans (337-350 A.D.), and Constantine II. (337-340 A.D.) 

14. Division of the Empire. — Constantine divided the 
empire among two of his nephews and his three sons, 
Constantius, Constans, and Constantine. The people, dis- 
contented with the division, massacred all Constantino's 
nephews, save Julian and Gallus. This division of the 
empire weakened and exposed it to the old dissensions. 

15. Death of Constantine II. and Constans. — Constantine 
II., not content with his portion of Spain, G-aul, and Bri- 
tain, warred on his brother, Constans, and fell in an am- 
buscade near Aquileia (a.d. 340). Constans seized his pro- 
vinces. Constantius, in the East, was more occupied in 
sustaining the Arian heresy than in thoughts of conquest. 
But a revolt under Magnentius, which resulted in the 
death of Constans, called his brother to the West. Mag- 
nentius was defeated in the bloody battle of Mursa, in 
Pannonia, and fled to Lyons, where, being deserted by his 
followers, he first slew his family and then himself (a.d. 
353). 

16. Julian the Apostate (A.D. 361-363).— The whole em- 
pire thus fell to Constantius. He gave the title of Csesar 
to Julian and sent him to defend Gaul (a.d. 355). Ju- 
lian was a man of great ability and versatility. He estab- 
lished order in the provinces, discipline in the armies, and 

14. How did Constantine divide the Empire % What was the result 1 15. What 
of Constantine II. ? Who succeeded to his possessions ? Describe the struggle 
between Constantius and Magnentius. 16. How did Constantius treat Julian ? 



156 History of the World. [a.d. 355-364 

drove the Franks and Germans out of Gaul. He lessened 
the taxes, established justice, and built himself a palace in 
the city of Lutetia (Paris), where he resided. Constantius, 
jealous of Julian's successes and attacked by the Persians, 
demanded some of the young Caesar's best troops. When 
these arrived at Lutetia they revolted and proclaimed Ju- 
lian emperor (a.d. 360). Julian accepted the title and ad- 
vanced to Sirmium to attack Constantius, when the death 
of the emperor saved Rome from another civil war (a.d. 
361). 

17. Julian marched to Constantinople, where, as through 
all the empire, his authority was recognized. Thus far he 
had pretended to be a Christian. He now made an open 
profession of idolatry, and the chief bent of his policy 
seemed to be the suppression of Christianity. He was 
cunning and crafty in his assault, and not so openly vio- 
lent as his predecessors ; for which reason, doubtless, his 
efforts met with more success than theirs. But death 
overtook him in a war against Sapor, King of Persia (a.d. 
363), and his army, lured into a desert, almost perished 
of famine. 

18. Jovian (A.D. 363-364). — Jovian was chosen emperor 
by the army, to save which he was compelled to sign a 
treaty surrendering Armenia and a part of Mesopotamia. 
He gave every promise of a good and great reign, when 
he was suddenly found dead in his bed. 

19. Valentinian I. (A.D. 364-375) and Valens (A.D. 364- 
378). — Valentinian was the next choice of the army. He 
was a man of noble presence and noble character. He was 
a faithful Christian, and avowed himself such in the reign 
of Julian. But he was violent of temper and so led into 
cruelty. He chose his brother, Valens, as his colleague in 

What of Julian in Gaul ? Describe the rupture between Julian and Cpnstan- 
tius. 17. What course did Julian pursue on attaining to supreme power ? What 
befell him? 18. Who succeeded Julian 1 ? 19. Who succeeded Jovian ? 



a.d. 384-383] Rome— The Empire. 157 

governing the empire. Valens, though good enough mor- 
ally, was indolent and careless, and the East, to which he 
was allotted, did not tend to rouse him. He favored the 
Arians. 

20. Valentinian continued to govern wisely and well. 
Sometimes he resided in Milan, at others in Treves. He 
watched his frontiers and repelled the barbarians. His 
evil temper, however, proved fatal to himself, and he 
died from the rupture of a blood-vessel in a fit of pas- 
sion (a.d. 375). 

21. Beginning of the Invasions. — The Huns, a barbarous 
people, swarming in from the northeast, drove the Goths, 
the old foes of Rome, towards the shores of the Danube. 
The Goths begged permission to cross the Danube and set- 
tle in Mcesia as subjects of the empire. Valens first grant- 
ed their request and then withdrew his permission. The 
angered Goths revolted and overran the country. Valens 
took the field against them and was routed and slain near 
Adrianople (a.d. 378). 

22. Gratian (A.D. 375-383) ; Theodosius the Great (A.B. 
378-395). — Gratian had succeeded his father, Valentinian. 
The death of Valens left him master of the empire. As col- 
league he chose a very able man, Theodosius. The Goths 
were utterly routed, great numbers of them becoming sub- 
jects of the empire ; the rest were pursued beyond the Ehine. 

23. In face of such vigorous leadership the other bar- 
barians ceased their irruptions and the Persians sued for 
peace. All this was the work of the Christian Theodo- 
sius, whose mild firmness was more effective than arms. 
He abolished the worship of idols throughout the empire. 

24. Maximus (A.D. 383-388) ; Valentinian II. (A.D. 375- 
392). — Gratian, Emperor of the West, was a worthy com- 

20. Describe the rule of Valentinian. 21. Who were the Huns ? What occa- 
sioned the Gothic invasion ? Was it successful ? 22. What of Gratian and the 
Goths ? Who was Gratian's colleague % 23. Describe the work of Theodosius. 



158 History of the World. [ a .d. 383-392 

peer of Theodosius, though, his passion for hunting led 
him often to neglect affairs of state. Maximus, one of 
his generals, taking advantage of his negligence, raised 
a revolt which resulted in the death of G-ratian (a.d. 
383). 

25. Valentinian II., G-ratian's brother, saved himself 
from the same fate by flying to Thessalonica. Tlieodo- 
sius received the young prince kindly, led him to abjure 
Arianism, and in the following year accompanied him 
west to displant Maximus. Maximus was defeated at the 
Save, and himself taken prisoner at Aquileia. He was 
slain by the soldiers. 

26. Sedition broke out at Antioch (a.d. 388). Theo- 
dosius sent two commissaries with severe orders. The 
terrified inhabitants begged for mercy, and Flavian, Bish- 
op of Antioch, went to Constantinople to intercede for 
his people. The appeal of -the bishop moved the justly- 
angered emperor to mercy, and the city was saved. A 
similar revolt occurred at Thessalonica. Theodosius caus- 
ed seven thousand of the citizens to be slain. But the 
rebuke of St. Ambrose led him to do public penance for 
this indiscriminate slaughter (a.d. 390). 

27. Assassination of Valentinian II. (A.D. 392). — A 
new revolution led Theodosius again westward. Valentin- 
ian II., young as he was, governed with such prudence 
as to give promise of great good, when he was assassinat- 
ed by Arbogastes, the general of his armies (a.d. 392). 
Arbogastes called Eugenius, one of his associates, to the 
throne. Theodosius forced the passage of the Alps from 
the Hlyrian side, and, descending the mountains, found an 
army much more numerous than his own opposed to him 
under the combined pagan and Christian banners. 

24. What befell Gratian ? 25. What of Yalentinian II. and Maximus ? 
26. What city revolted ? By whom was Antioch saved 1 Tell of the revolt at 
Thessalonica. 27. What befell Yalentinian II. ? Who was set on the throne ? 



a.d. 392-395] Rome— The Empire. 159 

28. They fought near Aquileia, and victory declared for 
the rebels. They spent the night in debauchery, Theo- 
dosius in prayer. At dawn next morning he renewed the 
fight, and, favored by the elements, threw the victors into 
confusion. Arbogastes slew himself in despair. Eugenius, 
brought by his own soldiers to Theodosius, was executed. 
The vanquished army rejoiced in their defeat and frater- 
nized with the conquerors. Theodosius died at Milan in 
the arms of St. Ambrose (a.d. 395). He well deserved 
his title of " Great." 

29. The Church in the Fourth Century. — Although the 
Christian Church was declared free by Constantine the 
Great, she had still to encounter much persecution and 
to overcome paganism and heresy. Great men rose up 
in her bosom to defend and illustrate the faith and to 
expose at once the errors both of paganism and heresy. 
St. Athanasius, who assisted at the first Council of Nice, 
was one of the most celebrated of these Christian doctors. 
Appointed to the see of Alexandria, he was the object of 
hatred to the Arians, who, favored by temporal authority, 
were very powerful. Often wandering or in exile, he fin- 
ally died peacefully at Alexandria after an episcopate of 
forty-seven years (a.d. 326-373). St. Hilary, Bishop of 
Poitiers, a contemporary of St. Athanasius, did like ser- 
vice in the Latin Church. 

SO. The Greek Church at this period has many illus- 
trious names — St. Basil, Bishop of Csesarea ; St. Gregory, 
Bishop of Nazianzen ; St. John Chrysostom, and others. 
The great St. Ambrose has identified his name with Mi- 
lan. He converted St. Augustine, who with St. Jerome 
became pillars of faith in the West. 

31. The chief agent of the Church in winning the 

28. Describe the battle of Aquileia. How did Theodosius die 1 29. How did 
Christianity progress 1 What of St. Athanasius ? Of St. Hilary ? 30. Name 
some of the Greek Fathers. What of St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, St. Jerome ? 



160 History of the World. [a.d. 395 

world from paganism was the pure example of a Chris- 
tian life in the great body of its members. This was 
something to be seen and noted every day ; and the world 
could not close its eyes to the contrast between the pa- 
gan and Christian doctrines as exemplified in the lives 
of those who practised the one and the other. In addi- 
tion came the martyrs who suffered death for the faith in 
the various persecutions. Then, too, monasticism, leading 
to lives of extraordinary mortification, retirement, medita- 
tion, and prayer, showed itself in the East to rebuke a 
world sunk in sensuality and self-indulgence. Monasti- 
cism spread to the West and took fast hold there. St. 
Paul the Hermit and St. Antony were great promoters of 
monasticism in the East. In the West "St. Martin founded 
the first monastery at Liguge, near Poitiers (a.d. 370). 

32. 1 The new doctrines that the Church taught to all 
were the sanctity and inviolability of marriage, which 
constitutes the keystone of family life ; the virtue of 
chastity ; charity towards all ; love for the poor and suf- 
fering ; limitation of the excessive authority of the fa- 
ther ; mutual obligations betAveen superior and inferior ; 
and the equality of all men in the sight of God, which 
in time led to the abolition of slavery. 

31. What was the chief agent in the overthrow of paganism ? What was the 
work of the martyrs ? What part did monasticism play ? Who were the chief 
promoters of monasticism East and West 1 State the Christian doctrines. 



HISTOKY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 



The history of the Middle Ages begins with the death of Theodosius the 
Great (a.d. 395) and ends with the taking of Constantinople by the Turks (a.d. 
1453). This period embraces the transition from the old pagan to Christian civ- 
ilization, the disruption of the Roman Empire, and the laying the foundations of 
modern European states on its ruins. It is divided into fivo epochs: 1. The 
barbaric invasions and conversion of the barbarians : from the death of Theodosius 
the Great to the death of St. Gregory the Great (a.d. 395-604). 2, The formation 
of Christian Europe : from the death of St. Gregory the Great to the death of Char- 
lemagne (a.d. 604-814). 3. Feudal Europe : from the death of Charlemagne to 
the accession of Gregory VII. (a.d. 814-1073). 4. The Papacy and Catholic 
Europe : from the accession of Gregory VII. to the death of St. Louis (a.d. 
1073-1270). 5, Religious and Political Anarchy : from the death of St. Louis to 
the taking of Constantinople by the Turks (a.d. 1270-1453). 



FIRST EPOCH {A.D. 395-604). 

FROM THE DEATH OP THEODOSIUS THE GREAT TO THE DEATH OP 
ST. GREGORY THE GREAT— 209 YEARS. 

The first epoch of the Middle Ages comprises the invasions of the bar- 
barians and their conversion. The German tribes occupied the Western Em- 
pire and founded several kingdoms. At the death of St. Gregory all the tribes 
in the empire had embraced Christianity. 



CHAPTER I. 



THE BARBARIC INVASIONS AND FALL OF THE 

WESTERN EMPIRE (395-476). 

SECTION I. Honorius (395-423) ; Alaric and Radagasius. 

1. Division of the Roman Empire (395)^ — Theodosius the 
Great divided the empire between his two sons, Arcadius 

Where does the history of the Middle Ages begin and end? Give the various 
divisions. What does the first epoch of the Middle Ages embrace ? How far had 
Christianity spread at the death of St. Gregory 1 

161 



162 History of the World. [a.d. 395-403 

and Honorius ; Honorius receiving the Western and Arca- 
dius the Eastern Empire. The young princes were placed 
under the tutelage of two ministers, each ambitious and 
jealous of the other. Stilicho, a Vandal, ruled in the name 
of Honorius, and Eufinus, a Gaul, in that of Arcadius. 
Stilicho resolved on governing both empires. To defeat his 
schemes Eufinus connived at a Visigothic invasion. 

2. Invasion of Alaric (395-396). — These Visigoths, or 
Western Goths, had been allies of Theodosius the Great, 
and as such were allowed to settle in Mcesia (now Bulgaria). 
Alaric, their chief, eagerly took up Eufinus' invitation and 
ravaged the weakened empire up to the walls of Constan- 
tinople. It was the first appearance of the barbarians before 
the city. Eufinus, boasting that he would save the state, 
bought them off, giving them at the same time permission 
to pillage the rest of Greece. 

3. Athens was only saved by a ransom ; Corinth was des- 
troyed and the Peloponnesus laid waste. Stilicho hastened 
with all his forces to meet the invader ; but the Eastern 
legions were called away to Constantinople. On their arri- 
val Eufinus was slain by one of Stilicho's emissaries. Alaric, 
having escaped with his forces from Stilicho, was named by 
Arcadius commander of the militia in the Illyrian prefec- 
ture (396), and was thus won over to the Eastern Empire. 

4. Alaric in Italy (401-403). — Alaric assumed the title 
of King of the Visigoths. Entering the Western Empire 
through the plains of Lombardy, he marched against Milan, 
which Honorius had made his capital. Stilicho, hastening 
up, conveyed the emperor to Eavenna, which he made the 
imperial residence because it was thought impregnable both 
by land and sea. On Easter day (403) he gave battle to 
the barbarians under the walls of Pollentia. The Christians 

1. How did Theodosius divide the empire 1 Who were appointed ministers ? 
What carne of their rivalry ? 2. Describe Alaric's invasion. 3. How was Alaric 
pacified 1 4. Tell of Alaric's campaign in Italy. 



a. d. 403-406] The Middle Ages. 163 

were conspicuous by their bravery, and Alaric lost the flower 
of his army, his wife, children, and treasures. 

5. Alaric, beaten again near Verona, returned to Illyria, 
while Honorius and Stilicho entered Eome in triumph. 
At the games held in their honor Telemachus, a monk, 
entered the arena, and, kneeling amid the gladiators, be- 
sought the people to abolish so inhuman an amusement. 
He was struck dead by a gladiator, but the martyr's blood 
put the seal on the gladiatorial combats, which were thence- 
forth for eyer abolished. (See p. 131.) 

6. The Great Invasion of 406 ; Radagasius in Italy. — As 
the Visigoths withdrew the German tribes, pushed on by 
the Huns, poured down from the north and east towards 
the Danube and the foot of the Alps. Two hundred thou- 
sand of them, under the command of Radagasius, descend- 
ed the valley of the Adige. All Italy was stricken with 
terror, and the pagans clamored for the restoration of the 
ancient sacrifices to appease the gods. But the Christians 
had confidence in the cross. Florence made a prolonged 
resistance and stayed the advance of the invaders while 
Stilicho came up with thirty legions, freed the city, drove 
the barbarians back on the rocks of Fiesole, and there com- 
pelled them to lay down their arms. Eadagasius was be- 
headed and his comrades sold as slaves. 

7. The great Invasion in Gaul (406-409).— The defeat 
of Radagasius terrified the tribes who lined the Danube. 
Turning from Italy, about four hundred thousand of them, 
composed of Vandals, Alans, Suevi, and Burgundians, en- 
tered Gaul, sacked Mayence, Strassburg, Metz, Rheims, and 
others of the principal cities. Honorius, fearing for Italy, 
left the provinces to themselves. The Roman legions, whom 
he had recalled from Britain, revolted and proclaimed Oon- 

5. What happened after the defeat of Alaric ? 6. Who new invaded the em- 
pire 1 ? Who was their leader 1 ? How -were they beaten hack? 7. What occurred 
in Gaul ? What action did Honorius take ? 



164 History of the World. [a.d.' 406-411 

stantine, one of their captains, emperor (407). He was ac- 
knowledged in Gaul, and afterwards by Honorius. Pro- 
mising to liberate Gaul, lie was spared the task by the 
departure of the barbarians for Spain (409) in quest of 
fresh conquests. 

8. Alaric again in Italy (408-410). — Alaric, encamped at 
the passes into Italy, negotiated with the other barbarians 
with a view to striking a final blow at the empire. Stilicho 
undertook to win him over, when Honorius, fearful for his 
throne and of the designs of his ambitious minister, signed 
the latter's death-warrant. Stilicho was beheaded, and those 
of his friends who failed to find refuge with Alaric shared 
his fate. 

9. Alaric crossed the Alps and marched on Eome. He 
was bought off by a very large ransom (409) ; but Hono- 
rius, in Eavenna, refusing to ratify the treaty, Alaric again 
appeared before Eome. While still negotiating Honorius 
suddenly attacked him, but was beaten off. Alaric, enrag- 
ed, besieged the city, entered it under cover of night, and 
gave it up for six days to the fury of his followers (410). 
Everything was destroyed, and only those who sought re- 
fuge in the churches of SS. Peter and Paul were spared. 
The conqueror, laden with spoils, marched southwards to 
complete his conquest, but died on the way at Cosenza 
(410). 

10. The Visigoths in Gaul and Spain (412-419).— Ataulf, 
Alaric's successor, entered the service of Honorius, who 
commissioned him to bring back Gaul and Spain into sub- 
jection. Constantine was besieged in Aries and taken pri- 
soner (411). Ataulf overcame all opposition and finally es- 
poused Placidia, the sister of Honorius, at ISTarbonne. She 
had become his captive at the sacking of Eome. After 

What of Constantino ? 8. What became of Stilicho ? 9. Describe Alaric's new- 
invasion. What befell Rome ? 10. Tell of Ataulf and his exploits. Whom did 
he marry 1 



a.d. 411-429] The Middle Ages. 165 

pacifying Gaul lie entered. Spain, but was assassinated at 
Barcelona. 

11. Wallia, Ataulf's successor, carried on the work of 
subjugation with such success that he was given by Hono- 
rius the south of Gaul as far as the Garonne, which he 
joined to his conquests in Spain and formed into the 
kingdom of the Visigoths, with Toulouse for a capital. 
The kingdom of the Suevi, in Galicia, was founded and 
recognized at the same time. The kingdom of the Bur- 
gundians, between the Saone and the Rhone, had already 
been ceded to Gundicarius (413). Britain was formally 
abandoned in 409, and the independence of the Armori- 
can cities between the Seine and the Loire acknowledged. 
Thus at Honorius' death (423) the Western Empire was 
already dismembered and consisted of only a part of Gaul 
with Africa and Italy. 

SECTION II. Valentinian III. (424-455) ; Genseric and Attila ; the Van- 
dals in Africa (429). 

12. Invasion of the Vandals. — Valentinian III., a nephew 
of Honorius, and a minor, succeeded him. He was the 
son of Placidia by her marriage with Constantius. His 
mother, a woman of great virtue and capacity, ruled in 
his name, aided by the generals Aetius, master of the 
horse, and Boniface, governor of Africa. Rivalry be- 
tween the generals led to a new invasion. Boniface re- 
volted and summoned the Vandals to his aid. Genseric, 
King of the Vandals (428-477), crossed the strait of Gades 
(Gibraltar) and ravaged Mauritania (429). 

13. Boniface strove too late to undo the mischief he had 
wrought. He was defeated and shut up in Hippo, which 

11. Who succeeded Ataulf ? What kingdom did Wallia found ? Tell of other 
kingdoms formed out of the empire. What was left of the empire ? 12. Who 
succeeded Honorius? What invasion occurred? 



16'6 History of the World. [a.d. 429-447 

capitulated after a siege of fourteen months. During 
the siege died the great St. Augustine, Bishop of Hippo. 
Genseric, siding with the Arians against the Catholics, had 
the support of the heretics. He devastated Eoman Africa, 
which was called the granary of Eome. It is said that 
five millions of people perished in this invasion, and the 
fertile regions over which the Vandals passed were turned 
into a desert. Genseric seized Carthage and made it his 
capital (439) ; and his maritime power soon became as 
formidable as that of the ancient Carthaginians. 

14. Attila's Invasion (450-451). — Boniface had been par- 
doned by Placidia ; but Aetius, resolved on his destruction, 
in turn invited the Huns against him. The allies were 
defeated, but Boniface perished. Aetius, to redeem his cha- 
racter by military exploits, defeated the Burgundians and 
Visigoths, drove the Franks towards the Scheldt (447), 
and restored the imperial authority throughout most of 
Gaul. Genseric, trembling for his safety, incited the 
Huns to a new invasion. 

15. The Huns, a combination of the nomadic tribes of 
Western Asia, had pushed their conquests into Europe, 
where they had settled for half a century (433-453). 
Then Attila became their sole king. This most renown- 
ed of barbaric warriors, to whom the name was justly 
given of "the Scourge of God," seemed born to be an 
agent of destruction. At Genseric's invitation he gather- 
ed his men together and poured them upon the Eastern 
Empire. They passed like a tornado, and more than six- 
ty important cities were destroyed. The weak Theodosius 
II. paid him tribute, but Marcian, the successor of Theo- 
dosius, refused to pay it. 

16. Attila then turned his arms westward and set out 

13. Tell of the siege of Hippo and of Genseric's African campaign. 14. What 
followed between Boniface and Aetius 1 15. Who was Attila ? What empire 
did he invade ? How was he stayed ? 



a.d. 447-453] The Middle A ges. 167 

for G-aul at the head of a horde of half a million barba- 
rians. Crossing the Rhine, he sacked Metz, Rheims, and 
the other cities that fell in his way. Troyes was spared 
at the intercession of St. Lupus, its bishop, and Paris 
owed its safety to the prayers of St. Genevieve. He was 
about to give up Orleans to pillage when St. Aignan, its 
bishop, announced the arrival of the Romans. The legions 
of Aetius, reinforced by the Franks, Visigoths, and a mul- 
titude of other allies under Theodoric, compelled Attila 
to withdraw. He halted on the vast plain of Chalons- 
sur-Marne, and there one of the bloodiest battles in his- 
tory ensued between the two largest armies that Europe 
had seen. Theodoric, the brave king of the Visigoths, 
fell, but the .Huns were beaten. Aetius, though vic- 
torious, allowed the enemy to recross the Rhine unmo- 
lested (451). 

17. Attila in Italy (452). — Attila, to avenge his defeat, 
entered Italy and ravaged it from Aquileia, which he 
burnt, to Milan, which he set up for ransom. The in- 
habitants of Venetia, stricken with terror at his approach, 
fled for refuge to the islands of the Adriatic, where they 
founded the city of Venice. The emperor, Valentinian 
III., fled from Ravenna to Rome. Doubting the fidelity 
of Aetius, he sent an embassy, headed by the Pope, St. 
Leo the Great, to Attila. The barbarian, struck with 
veneration for the pontiff, consented, on payment of a vast 
sum, to leave Italy ; threatening, however, to return the 
following year unless half the empire was ceded to him 
with the hand of Honoria, the emperor's sister. Death 
overtook him on the banks of the Theiss (453). 

18. Attila's empire disappeared with him ; the Huns 
dispersed ; the peoples that they had conquered recovered 

16. What brought Attila westward 1 Describe bis course. Wbat occurred at 
Chalons ? 17. What of Attila in Italy 1 How was he stayed 1 18. What became 
of Attila's empire ? . 



168 History of the World. [a.d. 453-472 

their independence and formed distinct states, the most 
powerful of which were the Gepidae, on the left bank of 
the Theiss, and the Ostrogoths, in Pannonia. With the de- 
feat of the Huns Valentinian III. felt secure, and to rid 
himself of Aetius, whom he feared, slew him (454). A 
few months later he was himself assassinated at the insti- 
gation of the senator Petronius Maximus, and with him 
ended the family of Theodosius the Great. 

SECTION III. The Last Emperors and the Confederates. 

19. Sacking of Some by Genseric (455). — Maximus com- 
pelled Eudoxia, the widow of his victim, to marry him, 
and usurped the throne. Eudoxia called ivpon Genseric 
to help her break the bonds she loathed. The Vandal 
monarch hastened to obey the call. Maximus, fleeing 
from Eome, was stoned by the populace. The city was 
given up to pillage for fourteen days and nights. No- 
thing was spared. Eudoxia and her children, with sixty 
thousand captives, were carried off to Carthage. 

20. Eicimer and Odoacer. — Eome now became the prey 
of the barbarians, who appointed emperors at their plea- 
sure. Eicimer, of the Suevi, held the privilege of ap- 
pointing for sixteen years. He could have seized the 
power himself, but preferred to instal his creatures. In 
twenty years eight emperors either perished or were de- 
posed. 

21. At the death of Eicimer (472) Orestes, who had 
formerly been in the councils of Attila, undertook to dis- 
pose of the purple. He bestowed it on his own son, then 
a child, named Eomulus Augustulus. He was the last and 
weakest of the Western emperors. The confederates, now 
masters of Italy, established themselves there as the bar- 

What befell Aetius? And Valentinian? 19. What brought Genseric to 
Rome ? The result ? 20. Who next ruled in Eome 1 21. Who was the last 
emperor of Rome ? 



a.d. 472-476] The Middle A ges. 169 

barians had done in the other provinces o*f the empire. 
Most conspicuous among their chiefs was Odoacer, of the 
Heruli. In the name of the confederates he demanded a 
third of the lands of Italy. Being refused, Orestes was 
taken and slain in Payia (476), and Eomulus Augustulus 
was compelled to abdicate. He retired into private life 
and ended his days in peace. 

22. Odoacer was proclaimed king. He sent an embassy 
to Zeno, Emperor of the East, acknowledging his su- 
premacy. Zeno thought it politic to allow Odoacer to 
retain his title with the government of Italy. Thus 
ended the Empire of the West (476). It had lasted five 
hundred and seven years from the battle of Actium and 
one thousand two hundred and twenty-nine years from 
the foundation of Borne. It had grown so feeble that its 
final extinction had no effect upon the world. 



CHAPTER II. 
GAUL— THE MEROVINGIAN FRANKS. 

SECTION I. Clovis I. and his Conquests (481-511). 

1. The Franks. — The name of Pranks first appears in 
the middle of the third century. It was applied to a 
confederation of German tribes between the Rhine and 
the Weser. It meant free men. The Franks were for- 
midable to the Romans, and were among the first of the 
barbarians allowed to settle in the empire. After the 
great invasion of 406 they renounced allegiance to the 
empire and took possession of the northern part of Gaul. 

What -was Odoacer's demand and the result of it? 22. What title was given 
Odoacer ? Who acknowledged it ? How long had the Empire of the West last- 
ed? 1. Who -were the Franks ? Where did they settle ? :;;A 



170 History of the Would. [ a .d. 481-496 

2. In 448 Clodion, their king, seized Tournai and pene- 
trated as far as Sens, where he was defeated by Aetius. 
His successor, Merovseus, aided the Romans in their strug- 
gle with Attila (451). Childeric succeeded him, but what- 
ever fame he had is lost in that of his great son, Olovis, 
who ascended the throne in 481, though only sixteen 
years old at the time. 

3. Conquests of Clovis. — Clovis resolved on conquering 
Gaul, which was split up into a number of hostile tribes. 
The north of the country, from the Somme to the Rhine, 
was occupied by the Franks ; to the east, between the 
Rhine and the Yosges, were the Germans, or Alemanni ; 
the Burgundians held the territory between the Saone, the 
Rhone, and the Alps ; the Visigoths had conquered the 
south of Gaul as far as the Loire ; to the west were the 
Bretons, refugees from Britain, the confederation of the 
Armorican cities, and a Saxon colony at Bayeux ; while 
in the lands between the Loire and the Somme Syagrius 
ruled over the Gallo-Romans who survived the fall of the 
Roman Empire. 

4. Clovis marched from Tournai against Syagrius, whom 
he defeated near Soissons (486). He then possessed him- 
self of nearly all the country as far as the Loire. His 
marriage (493) with Clotilda, a Catholic princess, brought 
him several important cities. He next defeated the Ale- 
manni at Tolbiac (496). This was followed by his con- 
version to the Catholic faith. He was baptized by St. 
Remi, Bishop of Rheims (496), and was followed by many 
of his warriors. At this time he was the sole Catholic 
prince in the world, and the Franks were the first of the 
barbarians to renounce their idols and embrace the true 
faith. 

2. What of Clodion? HerovEeus? Childeric? 3. How was Gaul divided at 
this time ? What was the plan of Clovis ? 4. Describe Clovis' march. Whom 
did he marry ? What did he become ? 



a.d. 496-524] The Middle Ages. 171 

5. The Bretons and Armoricans submitted to his rule, but 
the Burgimdians and the Visigoths, who were Arians, held 
out under their king, Gundobald, who had murdered his 
brothers, one of whom was the father of Clotilda. Gundo- 
bald was defeated at Dijon and had to submit to an annual 
tribute (500). The Visigoths suffered a more disastrous de- 
feat at Voglode, or Vouille, where they lost their king, Ala- 
ric, the flower of their army, and Aquitania (507), there 
only remaining to them in Gaul the sea-coast between the 
Ehone and the Pyrenees, thenceforth called Gothland, or 
Septimanca. Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths, obtained 
from them the title of king, and drove the Franks from 
Provence, which he added to his realm. 

6. After returning from his conquests Clovis received 
from Anastasius, Emperor of the East, the title of patri- 
cian and consul, which legalized all his possessions in the 
eyes of his subjects. He was zealous for the faith, a friend 
to the pope, and died at Paris (511), which he made his 
capital. 

SECTION II. Wars and Conquests of Clovis' Successors till the Death of 
Dagofoert I. (511-638). 

7. The four Sons of Clovis. — The kingdom of Clovis was 
divided among his four sons : Thierry dwelt at Metz, Clo- 
domir at Orleans, Childebert at Paris, and Clotaire I. at 
Soissons. Clotilda induced all except Thierry to unite 
against Sigismund, King of the Burgundians, and eldest 
son and successor of Gundobald. Sigismund was taken 
prisoner and droAvned by order of Clodomir. The latter, 
after gaining a victory near Veseronce (524), fell into the 
hands of the Burgundians, by whom he was put to death. 
He left three children, two of whom were murdered by their 

5. Who opposed Clovis 1 ? What occurred at Vouille ? Who rescued the Visi- 
goths ? 6. What title was bestowed on Clovis ? What was his character ? 
7. How was the kingdom of Clovis divided ? The result ? 



172 History of the Would. [a.d. 524-575 

uncles Ohildebert and Clotaire. The youngest escaped and 
became celebrated for bis virtues under the name of St. 
Cloud. 

8. Gondemar, Sigismund's brother and successor, main- 
tained the struggle against the Franks for ten years, but 
at last yielded, and the kingdom of the Burgundians lost 
its independence (534). Thierry, King of Austrasia, had 
already conquered Thuringia (530). Theodebert (534-548), 
his son and successor, was the most renowned of the Mero- 
vingians after Olovis. He obtained Provence in return for 
services rendered the G-reeks and Ostrogoths, whom he 
afterwards defeated in Italy and ravaged the country (539). 
He was about to undertake an expedition against the Em- 
peror Justinian when he died. The Austrasian Franks 
made a second expedition into Italy under his son Theo- 
debald, but nearly all perished either by the plague or the 
sword of the Greeks. Ohildebert and Clotaire were more 
successful in an expedition into Spain. Thus within a 
short time the Franks were not only masters of Gaul, but 
extended their conquests beyond the Ehine, the Alps, and 
the Pyrenees. Clotaire I. became sole king in 558, but 
only enjoyed his power for three years. 

9. Rivalry of Eeustria and Austrasia (568-613). — When 
Clotaire died the monarchy was again divided among his 
four sons — Caribert, King of Paris ; Gontran, of Orleans 
and Burgundy ; Chilperic, of Soissons ; and Sigebert, of 
Metz. The brothers quarrelled and civil war broke out on 
all sides. Chilperic invaded Austrasia, but was beaten back. 
Sigebert in turn invaded Neustria and captured Paris, when 
he fell at the hand of an assassin (575). His son, a minor, 
ascended the throne under the title of Childebert II., his 
uncle Gontran being his guardian. Gontran, by the treaty 

8. What became of Burgundy and of Thuringia? Tell of Theodebert. What 
happened under Theodebald ? Under whom were the Franks united ? 9. What 
occurred after the death of Clotaire ? How did Gontran win over the nobles 1 



a. d. 575-638] The Middle Ages, 173 

of Andelot (587), secured to the nobles the life possession 
of their estates, thus securing their allegiance at the same 
time. 

10. The internal troubles of the kingdom Avere added to 
and intensified by the rivalries of the respective princesses, 
especially Fredegunda and Brunehaut. Fredegunda pro- 
claimed her son king of JSTeustria under the name of Clo- 
taire II. (584). At the death of Gontran (593) war broke 
out between the women. Fredegunda defeated Childebert 
near Droissy, and his two sons, Theodebert and Thierry, at 
Latofao, when she died in the midst of her triumphs (597). 
Brunehaut then again entered Neustria, and was on the 
point of overwhelming Clotaire II. when the death of one 
of her grandsons and the defection of the other left her 
without a leader. She was taken by Clotaire and dragged 
to .death at the tail of a wild horse (613). 

11. Clotaire II. and Dagobert I. (613-638).— Clotaire 
II., already King of Neustria, became sole master of 
the empire of the Franks (613). By his famous con- 
stitution, published at Paris (615), he left to the Aus- 
trasian lords the election of the mayors of the palace 
and to the clergy the choice of the prelates. 

12. Dagobert I. (628-638), the eldest son and succes- 
sor of Clotaire, was a wise and powerful prince. He 
established a splendid court at Paris. His throne, of 
massive gold, was made by St Eloi, the most skilful 
goldsmith of his age. Dagobert's friendship was sought 
by all the monarchs of the time, even by the emperor 
of the East. He ruled from the Pyrenees to the Weser, 
and from the ocean to the frontiers of Bohemia. When 
Caribert, his brother, died, Aquitania fell to him. The 
Bavarians, Alemanni, Frisians, Thuringians, and Saxons 

10. Tell of Fredegunda and Brunehaut. What befell them both ? 11. Who 
now became king of the Franks 1 What of Clotaire's constitution ? 12. De- 
scribe the reign of Dagobert. What was the extent of his kingdom ? 



174 History of the World. [ A .d. 407-449 

paid him tribute. He held sway over the Lombards in 
Italy, and gave a king to the Visigoths in Spain. Be- 
fore his death he was obliged to name his eldest son 
king of Austrasia, and lived to see the beginning of the 
decline of the Merovingian monarchy 



CHAPTER III. 
GREAT BRITAIK— THE AHGLO-SAXQXS. 

1. The Romans in Britain. — Julius Csesar passed over 
from Gaul into the island of Britain and made some con- 
quests there. In the following century the whole island, 
save the northern part, inhabited by the Picts and Scots, 
was conquered by the Romans. To save the Britons from 
the incursions of these fierce tribes walls were built right 
across the narrowest northern part of the island. So de- 
pendent did the Britons become on the Roman arms that 
when deserted by Honorius in 407 they addressed a piti- 
ful appeal to Rome, known as "the groans of the Bri- 
tons." Being unable to repel their assailants, Vortigern, 
their chief, called to their aid the sea-rovers inhabiting the 
coasts of Scandinavia (449). 

2. Invasion of the Saxons and Angles (449-584). — A band 
of these pirates, under the brothers Hengist and Horsa, 
landed on the isle of Thanet. This island was promised 
them if they repelled the Picts and Scots. Being rein- 
forced by others of their countrymen, they beat off the Cale- 
donians, and then set to work to possess themselves of the 
lands of their allies. Joining with the Picts, they held 
the country between the lower Thames and the English 

1. How came the Romans into Britain ? What followed the Eoman conquest? 
What was the action of Vortigern 1 2. What of Hengist and Horsa ? What 
kingdom did Hengist found? 



a.u. 449-597] The Middle Ages. 175 

Channel. Hengist founded the kingdom of Kent, of which 
Canterbury became the capital (455). 

3. Hengisfc's success and the richness of the soil led to 
other Saxon invasions. The Britons were easily overcome. 
The kingdoms of Sussex, Wessex, and Essex, or South, 
West, and East Saxony, were founded, East Saxony having 
London for a capital (526). To the Saxon invaders suc- 
ceeded the Angles under their chief, Idda, called the Fire- 
brand-. These landed on the east coast, and, after subdu- 
ing the Britons, there founded the kingdoms of North- 
umbria, East Anglia, and Mercia. 

4. The Heptarchy. — These seven kingdoms, called the 
Anglo-Saozon Heptarchy, were at first independent of each 
other. They afterwards formed a confederation under one 
chief (Bretwalda), who presided over a general assembly 
{Witenag emote, or council of the wise). Still, they were for 
ever fighting among themselves and with the Britons, 
who, taking refuge in the mountain fastnesses of Wales, 
made constant incursions on the invaders, and succeeded in 
maintaining their independence up to the reign of Edward 
I. (1.283). Others of them retreated to Cumberland, Corn- 
wall, and Armorica in France, called after them Bretagne. 
But Cumberland and Cornwall soon lost their independence. 

5. Conversion of the Anglo-Saxons (597). — Britain re- 
ceived the Catholic faith in the second century. St. Al- 
ban was martyred there during the persecution of Diocle- 
tian (303). Eeligion Avas beginning to flourish in the island 
when it disappeared with the Roman civilization; the bar- 
barians came, and the work had all to be done over again. 
Gregory the Deacon, seeing some beautiful youths for sale 
as slaves in Rome, inquired who they were, and, finding 
they were from Britain, was moved with the desire of con- 

3. What followed Hengist's success ? Name the kingdoms founded. What 
of the Angles? 4. What was the Heptarchy? What became of the Britons? 
5. How and when did Britain receive the faith ? 



176 History of tee World. [a.d. 419-507 

verting the race. Afterwards becoming pope, he sent for- 
ty missionaries under Augustine to the land of the An- 
gles, thenceforward called England (Angle-land). 

6. Augustine and his brother-monks landed on the isle 
of Thanet. They were received with favor by Ethelbert, 
King of Kent and chief of the Heptarchy, whose wife, Ber- 
tha, a daughter of Oaribert, King of Paris, was a Catho- 
lic. The king and a number of his people were converted. 
Augustine was made Archbishop of Canterbury, and com- 
missioned by the pope to establish a Catholic hierarchy and 
evangelize the country. 



CHAPTEE IV. 
SPAIN— THE VISIGOTHS. 

1. The Visigoths in Gaul and Spain (419-507).— The 
kingdom of the Visigoths, founded by Wallia (419), com- 
prised Spain and the south of Gaul as far as the Garonne. 
In the fifth century it was the most powerful of the states 
formed out of the ruins of the Koman Empire. Theo- 
doric I., Wallia's successor, fell gloriously against Attila 
on the bloody field of Chalons-sur-Marne. His three sons, 
Thorismond, Theodoric II., and Euric, who in turn suc- 
ceeded him, completed the subjugation of Spain and ex- 
tended their possessions in Gaul to the Loire and the 
Alps. Their court was the centre of great refinement 
and luxury. But their power fell before Clovis (507), 
who only left to them in Gaul that portion of the sea- 
coast called after them Gothland, or Septimanca. 

2. Conversion of the Visigoths (587). — The Visigoths ad- 

Who was the apostle to the English ? 6. How was St. Augustine received 1 
Of what see did he become the head? 1. Sketch the early history of Spain. 
Who overthrew the Visigoths ? 



a.d. 507-587] The Middle Ages. 177 

hered to Arianism. Amalric married Clotilda, daughter of 
Clovis, but treated her so brutally that her brothers, 
Clotaire and Childebert, crossed the Pyrenees and de- 
feated and slew him. With him perished the illustrious 
family of Alaric (531). In the dispute for the succes- 
sion Athanagild called the Greeks into Spain and be- 
stowed the hands of his daughters, Brunehaut and Gal- 
suinde, on the kings of Austrasia and Neustria. But the 
crown soon passed to a king of another family. 

3. Leovigild (569-586) drove out the Greeks and sub- 
dued the Suevi (585), who, one hundred and sixty-six 
years previously, had founded an independent kingdom in 
Galicia. They were converted to Christianity in 562. 
Hermenegild, son of Leovigild, abjured Arianism and took 
refuge with the Suevi. The father, a fierce Arian, seized 
his son, and, on his refusal to receive communion at the 
hands of an Arian bishop, had him beheaded. His bro- 
ther, Eecared, ascended the throne, abjured Arianism, and 
was followed by the greater number of his people (587). 
By his wisdom, aided by St. Leander, Archbishop of Se- 
ville, heresy soon disappeared ; but the morals of the peo- 
ple long continued very corrupt. 



CHAPTER V. 
ITALY AND THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 

"When the Western Empire fell Italy, in less than a century (476-568), passed 
successively under the sway of the Heruli, Ostrogoths, Greeks, and Lombards. 

SECTION I. Italy under the Heruli. 

1. Odoacer (476-493).— Odoacer, chief of the Heruli, 
after deposing Romulus Augustulus, abolished the title of 

2. How did the family of Alaric disappear ? What followed on its disappear- 
ance 1 3. What of Leovigild ? How and under whom did the Visigoths become 
Christian ? Who helped to establish Christianity ? 



178 History of the World. [ a .d. 476-493 

emperor and made himself king of Italy. He distributed 
among his tribe and the rest of the confederate barbarians 
a third of the lands of Italy, thus securing their alle- 
giance. From Eavenna to the Danube his arms were vic- 
torious, and Eome grew proud of her warrior-king, who 
had the wisdom to leave her her senate and ancient con- 
stitutions. Though an Arian and a ruler of pagans, he 
was kind to the Church and alive to the worth of the 
true religion in guiding his people. 

SECTION II. The Ostrogoths ; Theodoric the Great and his Successors. 

2. The Ostrogoths overrun Italy. — The Ostrogoths, es- 
tablished in Pannonia since the dispersion of the Huns, 
were governed by Theodoric, a chief of the family of the 
Amales. Bred at the Byzantine court, he had all the gifts 
and graces of civilization covering a barbaric nature. His 
victories made him so dangerous that the Emperor Zeno 
ceded to him all his rights over Italy. Theodoric called 
his Goths together, and, at the head of two hundred thou- 
sand warriors, poured into Italy through the northern 
passes. He beat Odoacer at Isonzo and Verona, but was 
stayed in Liguria until the Visigoths under Alaric II. 
came up to his aid. 

3. Odoacer sustained a total defeat on the Adige and 
shut himself up in Kaveima, where he was blockaded for 
three years, Eome and the rest of Italy submitting to 
Theodoric. To secure Eavenna, which he wished for a 
capital, Theodoric promised to share the government of 
Italy with Odoacer if the latter surrendered. Odoacer 
consented, and at a banquet given to celebrate the event 
he and his followers were treacherously murdered by Theo- 
doric (March 5, 493). 

1. Where did Odoacer rule 1 ? Describe his reign. 2. Who was Theodoric? 
What was his character ? Tell of his invasion. 3. Where did Odoacer take re- 
fuge ? How was Eavenna won ? 



a.d. 493-526] The Middle Ages. 179 

4. Reign of Theodoric. — Tlieodoric had now no rival, 
and assumed the title of King of the Goths and Eomans. 
His empire soon reached from Italy to the Theiss, the 
Upper Danube, and the Rhone, and included Sicily, ceded 
by the king of the Vandals. As guardian of his grandson, 
Amalric, he governed southern Gaul, and by family ties, 
treaties, and victories became the most powerful monarch 
of his time. 

5. A third of the conquered lands and slaves was as- 
signed to the Goths, with the obligation of paying taxes. 
The revenues thus acquired were employed in building 
palaces, restoring ancient monuments, in games and shows, 
and in fitting out a fleet to protect the coasts. The king 
loved the arts, favored letters, the study of law, reformed 
the legislative and judicial procedure, and made wise pro- 
visions for the government of the various peoples under 
his rule. The study of jurisprudence and of letters he 
left to the Eomans ; to the Goths the art of war. 

6. To the Catholics Theodoric had been kind and im- 
partial. He strove to reconcile the see of Constantinople 
with that of Rome. He abolished the law of Odoacer 
which made the election of the popes subject to the ap- 
proval of princes, and favored worthy Catholic bishops and 
priests. These good dispositions did not last, however. As 
years came he became drawn into the religious quarrels of 
the time and lent his ear to intrigues. These turned him 
from his steady, impartial attitude into a bitter persecu- 
tor of the Church. The illustrious Boethius was one of 
his victims. Pope John I. was imprisoned by his order 
at Ravenna, where he died, and Tlieodoric survived him 
only three months (526). 

7. Successors of Theodoric. — To Theodoric succeeded his 

4. What title did Theodoric assume ? What was his empire 1 5. How did 
Theodoric reward the Goths ? What measures did he introduce 1 6. How did 
Theodoric treat the Church ? Was he always a protector of the Church ? 



180 History of the World. [a.d. 395-457 

grandson, Athalaric, whose mother, Amalasonthe, ruled in 
harmony with the emperors of the East. The Goths de- 
siring to educate the prince after their own fashion, his 
mother raised her cousin Theodotus to the throne in con- 
cert with herself. Theodotus rewarded his benefactress by 
strangling her (535). 

SECTION HI. Tlie Eastern Empire after Theodosius ; Reign of Jus- 
tinian (527-565). 

8. Arcadius and his Successors. — With Arcadius, eldest 
son of Theodosius the Great, begins the history of the 
emperors of Constantinople. It is a miserable history for 
the most part, and is fitly designated as that of the Lower 
Empire. The weakness of Arcadius has been shown in 
the manner in which he attempted to repel the barbaric 
invasions. He kept himself aloof from the public gaze, 
and the energy of his wife, Eudoxia, was chiefly devoted 
to her persecution of St. John Chrysostom. 

9. Theodosius II., the son and successor of Arcadius, 
was a worthy son of such a sire. His reign is celebrated 
for the promulgation of a code and the holding of the 
great councils of Ephesus. His sister, St. Pulcheria, suc- 
ceeded to the throne in conjunction with Marcian. Both 
were models of virtue and rendered great service to both 
Church and state. With them ended the dynasty of 
Theodosius the Great (457). 

10. Thracian Dynasty. — Leo I., a tribune of Thracian 
birth, was chosen to succeed Marcian. He was the first 
prince to receive the crown from the hands of a pontiff — ■ 
the patriarch Anatolius. He protected his frontiers, but 
failed against the Vandals in Africa. Attributing his de- 
feat to tlie patrician Aspar, who was chiefly instrumental 

7. What happened after the death of Theodoric ? 8. Who was Arcadius 1 
What point in history does he mark ? 9. For what is the reign of Theodosius II. 
remarkable 1 Who succeeded him 1 10. How did the Thracian dynasty begin ? 



a. d. 457-536] The Middle Ages. 181 

in raising him to the throne, he had him put to death. 
At the death of Leo his father-in-law, Zeno, assumed the 
regency, and on the death of his own son, whom he had 
named Leo II., he became emperor. His reign was a pro- 
longed turmoil in Church and state. The Empire of the 
"West was left to dissolve as best it might. Anastasius, an 
old man of sixty, who knew nothing of war, succeeded 
Zeno, and had to defend the empire against the Scenitic 
Arabs, the Bulgarians, and Cabad, the King of Persia. 
Cabad was bought off. Anastasius was only strong in up- 
holding the heresy of Eutyches during the twenty-seven 
years of his reign (491-518). 

11. The Justinian Dynasty. — Justin I., an unlettered 
old man of seventy, was called by his soldiers to succeed 
Anastasius. His vigor restored Catholicity in the East 
and repelled the Persians. He adopted as heir his nephew, 
Justinian, who succeeded him. 

12. Reign of Justinian (527-565). — Justinian became a 
prominent figure in history. He had two famous gene- 
rals, Belisarius and Parses. Belisarius was sent against 
G-elimer (534), who had dethroned Hilderic, fifth king of 
the Vandals, and renewed the persecution of the Catholics. 
Carthage fell, and G-elimer was defeated and taken pri- 
soner at Tricameron. After restoring all Africa to alle- 
giance Belisarius returned in triumph, laden with the spoils 
of the Vandals. 

13. War against the Ostrogoths. — In the same year (534) 
Justinian declared war against the Ostrogoths of Italy. 
Belisarius entered Sicily and passed thence into Italy, where 
he took Bhegium and Naples (536). Theodatus, King of 
the Goths, was deposed and put to death by Vitiges, who 
assumed command. Despite the vigor of the new mon- 

What followed on the death of Leo ? 11. For what was the reign of Justin I. 
remarkable ? 12. Who were Belisarius and Narses ? Tell of Belisarius in Afri- 
ca. 13. What further exploits did Belisarius perform ? 



182 History of the World. [ a .d. 536-554 

arch Belisarius advanced and entered Rome. Here Viti- 
ges, at the head of an army of one hundred and fifty 
thousand Goths, besieged him. The siege lasted a year 
and was memorable for the heroic defence, against great 
odds, made by Belisarius. A plague compelled Vitiges to 
raise the siege and thinned the ranks of the Austrasian 
Franks, who were pouring into Italy from the North. 
Belisarius left Eome and marched on Ravenna, where Vi- 
tiges lay. The latter surrendered and was led captive to 
Constantinople (540). 

14. Belisarius next turned against the Persians, who, 
under Khosroes I., were ravaging Syria. Meanwhile the 
Ostrogoths of Italy had again risen under the valiant To- 
tila. Belisarius was recalled to Italy, but his success was 
small. Again recalled, Narses, at the head of a barbarian 
army, was sent to replace him, and in July, 552, he gain- 
ed the bloody battle of Tagina, which was followed by the 
death of- Totila. Teias, who resumed the struggle, was de- 
feated and slain near Vesuvius. The remnants of the 
Goths were allowed to pass the AIjds. An army of Aus- 
trasian Franks that arrived too late to assist Teias rav- 
aged the country, but was decimated by disease and crush- 
ed by Narses near Casilin. Italy was restored to the em- 
pire and JSTarses was made its first exarch (554). 

15. Policy of Justinian. — These conquests were complet- 
ed by the submission of Sardinia, Corsica, the Balearic 
Isles, and southern Spain. But the northern frontiers of 
the empire were still weak against the Lombards of Pan- 
nonia, the Avari, and the Bulgarians of the lower Danube, 
while the eastern frontier was only saved from Khosroes 
by Justinian's agreeing to pay the Persian an annual tri- 
bute of thirty thousand pieces of gold. 

What great siege occurred at this time 1 14. Tell of events in Syria and Italy. 
What happened at Tagina? How did the Gothic invasion end? 15. What 
territories were restored to the empire ? What foes surrounded it ? 



a. d. 554-610] The Middle Ages. 183 

16. Justinian erected many magnificent public build- 
ings and churclies. The Church of St. Sophia at Con- 
stantinople, now a mosque, still stands, But his chief 
fame lies in the reforms he effected in legislation. He 
caused to be prepared the famous Digest, or " Pandects," 
which was a condensation of the Roman law of the first 
three centuries of the empire ; the " Institutes," an ele- 
mentary work on law ; and the " New Code," containing 
the unrepealed constitutions of the emperors who preced- 
ed him. He continued to promulgate other laws, which 
were compiled in a fourth book under the title of " No- 
velise." These volumes constitute the Body of the Eoman 
Law as taught from the sixth century to our own day. 
The emperor died in 565 after a reign of thirty-eight years. 
Belisarius died eight months before. 

17. Justinian's Successors. — Justinian was succeeded by 
his nephew, Justin II. His reign was a disastrous one. 
He alienated his generals, especially Narses, and exaspe- 
rated the enemies who threatened his borders. He lost 
his reason. The Empress Sophia persuaded him to adopt 
Tiberius (574), the captain of his guards. Maurice, Ti- 
berius' son-in-law and successor, first defeated and then 
won over the Persians ; but his armies, beaten by the 
Avari, revolted and proclaimed Phocas, the centurion, 
emperor (602). Maurice and his sons were put to death, 
as also the Empress Constantina and her three sons. 
Eight years later Phocas met the same fate at the hands 
of Heraclius, and with him closed the third dynasty of 
the Lower Empire. 

SECTION IV. The Lombards in Italy (568-774). 

18. Alboin. — The Lombards, a Germanic people of Suevic 

16. For what is Justinian famed 1 Give an account of his reforms in legisla- 
tion. 17. Who succeeded Justinian ? Describe Justin's reign. What followed 
on the death of Justin ? With whom did the third dynasty close ? 



184 HlSTOBY OF THE Worlb. [a.D. 568-575 

stock established in Pannonia by Justinian, always yearn- 
ed for the rich lands of Italy, especially after the expul- 
sion of the Ostrogoths. But Alboin, their king, was 
afraid of Narses. He allied with the Avari, recently over 
from Asia, to crush the Gepidse. Both the Lombards and 
their leader cultivated ferocity in manners as well as 
in appearance. Alboin's favorite drinking- cup was the 
skull of his vanquished son-in-law, Cunimond, King of 
the Gepidae. An opportunity was afforded them by the 
nnwise recall of Parses, whom Sophia, wife of Justin 
II., hated. The Lombards at once entered Italy (568). 

19. Crossing the Julian Alps, Alboin founded the duchy 
of Friuii. At Milan he had himself proclaimed king of 
Italy. Marching southwards, he established the duchies of 
Spoleto and Beneventum. Other duchies were founded 
by his chieftains, while the king sat down before Pavia, 
the siege of which lasted three years. When taken he 
made it the capital of the Lombard kingdom, which lasted 
two hundred years (573-774). 

20. To the emperors of the East were left Eome, Ea- 
venna, several maritime cities of the north, and some pro- 
vinces of the south. The exarch of Eavenna was the repre- 
sentative of the emperors in Italy. Alboin was assassinated 
soon after his triumph at the instance of his queen, the 
daughter of Cunimond, who herself perished at the hands 
of the Lombards. 

21. The Lombard Kingdom. — Cleph was chosen to suc- 
ceed Alboin. After two years of battle and ravage he was 
slain (575). Ten years of interregnum followed under the 
rule of thirty-six leaders or dukes. Then Antharis, Cleph's 
son, was chosen king. He defeated the Greeks, but died of 
the plague during an attack on Ehegium. His widow, 

18. "Who were the Lombards 1 Describe their characteristics. 19. Tell of 
Alboin's invasion of Italy and its results. 20. What was left of the ancient 
Koman empire ? 21. What followed on the death of Alboin ? 



The Middle Ages. 185 

Theodolinda, daughter of a Bavarian prince, married (590) 
Agilulph, Duke of Turin, who was thereupon elected king 
by the Lombards. Influenced by the queen and the pope, 
St. Gregory the Great, Agilulph renounced Arianism and 
was followed in this by many of his subjects. 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE CHURCH AND THE BARBARIANS. 

SECTION I. The Church and the Early Heresies. 

1. The barbarian inroads that overwhelmed the old Ro- 
man Empire seemed to destroy every vestige of civilization, 
and even the Christian Church at first threatened to disap- 
pear and go down with the wreck. But it soon showed 
itself the one thing stable and firm amid the tumbling ruins 
and general devastation. 

2. Arms and Macedonius. — Nevertheless, as had been pre- 
dicted, the Church itself was troubled with heresies. In 
the fourth century rose up Arius, a deacon of Alexandria, 
to deny the divinity of our Lord. A large portion of Chris- 
tendom followed him and Macedonius, Bishop of Constanti- 
nople, who assailed the doctrine of the Trinity. Multitudes 
of Christians were led astray by these false teachers, and 
much evil was wrought in the Church and in civil society in 
consequence. The heresies were condemned in the oecu- 
menical councils of Nice and Constantinople. 

3. Pelagius. — In the fifth century came Pelagius, a British 
monk, residing in the East. He attacked the doctrine of 
grace, and his teachings spread rapidly through the West. 
St. Augustine of Hippo was especially powerful in con- 

1. What was the effect of the barbarian invasions 1 2. What was the heresy 
of Arius ? Of Macedonius '? The effect of the heresies ? By what councils were 
they condemned ? 3. What of Pelagius and his great opponent ? 



186 History of the World. 

fufcing him, and, condemned by popes and abandoned by 
princes, Pelagianism soon disappeared. 

4. Kestorius and Eutych.es. — Nestorianism and Eutychian- 
ism, called after the patriarch Nestorius and the abbot Eu- 
tyches, next sprang up in Constantinople. Nestorius taught 
that there are two distinct persons in Jesus Christ, the di- 
Tine Son of G-od and the mortal son of Mary ; and that, 
consequently, the Blessed Virgin is not and should not be 
called Mother of G-od. Eutyches, on the other hand, con- 
fused the divine and human natures of our Lord, which are 
absolutely distinct. The (Ecumenical Council of Ephesus 
(431) -deposed Nestorius, defined the two natures and one 
person in Jesus Christ, and declared Mary to be the Mother 
of God. Eutyches' error, condemned by Pope St. Leo, was 
again anathematized in the Council of Chalcedon in the 
presence of Marcian and St. Pulcheria (451). 

5. Acacius; Pifth (Ecumenical Council. — The bishops of 
Constantinople were jealous of Rome, and this jealousy was 
fostered by the emperors of the East. The patriarch Aca- 
cius, under the pretext of restoring unity, urged the Empe- 
ror Zeno to publish an edict in favor of the Eutychians. A 
schism resulted which for thirty-five years separated Con- 
stantinople from Rome. The Emperor Anastasius went be- 
yond this. He tore up the original acts of the Council 
of Chalcedon and imprisoned or massacred the orthodox 
priests. Justin I. restored peace, but it was endangered by 
Justinian. A new oecumenical council was summoned (553) 
at Constantinople, in which, despite threats and persecu- 
tion, Pope Vigilius upheld and confirmed the decisions of 
the Council of Chalcedon. 

6. The Church in the West. — Notwithstanding their fe- 
rocity, the barbarians soon showed themselves amenable to 

4. What was the heresy of Nestorius 1 Of Eutyches ? Where were the here- 
sies condemned 1 5. What schism occurred at this time ? What was the deci- 
sion of Pope Yigilius ? ■ ... ...... 



The Middle Ages. 187 

Christian influence. They had noble qualities which only- 
needed the influence of Christ's Gospel and Church to lift 
them up into the great peoples and nations they became. 
But this was only brought about by sore trials, sufferings, 
and martyrdom in the Christian body. 

7. Monastieism. — The love of retirement from the world 
had early drawn away many Christians into the solitudes 
and deserts of the East, where they lived lives of prayer 
and extraordinary mortification. Some of them gathered 
together to live in community, and monasteries were built 
and rules of life drawn up. The monasteries spread to the 
large cities, and in those days of continuous violence and 
change became asylums for the repentant and unfortunate 
as well as for those who chose to live a retired life. From 
the East they spread to the West. SS. Eusebius, Hilarion, 
Ambrose, and Jerome were instrumental in introducing 
them. St. Martin of Tours left the army to live in soli- 
tude and prayer afc Liguge, near Poitiers. After being made 
bishop he founded the celebrated abbey of Marmoutier, 
near Tours. Monasteries found early favor in Ireland, and 
St. Patrick greatly encouraged them. 

8. But St. Benedict (480-543) is the great patron of the 
monks of the West, and his order had a marked influence on 
the formation of Christendom in the growing European 
states. His famous house at Subiaco, near Rome, and 
Monte Cassino, near Naples, were centres of spiritual life 
and light in the middle ages. The monks taught men how 
to labor as well as to read and to pray. They at once 
made material deserts bloom and refreshed multitudes of 
weary souls with the sweet teaching of Christ. This great 
order has given to the Church about six thousand bishops, 
two hundred cardinals, and thirty-five popes. 

6. How did the barbarians receive Christianity 1 7. Describe the origin and 
spread of monastieism. 8. Who is the patron of the monks of the West 1 De- 
scribe their work and its results. 



188 History of the World. 

9. Letters and Arts. — The East, being more tranquil than 
the West during this period, had more time and opportu- 
nity to indulge in literature and the arts. In the West the 
single name of Theodoric alone calls up any memory of 
these refining influences. Boethius, Cassiodorus, and En- 
nodius nourished in this day ; and the palaces of Ravenna, 
Verona, and Pavia were built. The abbeys, however, were 
already beginning to send out their light, and the Church 
was made illustrious by many great saints. In the East 
were SS. Cyril of Alexandria, Flavian of Constantinople, 
John Climacus, and the Empress St. Pulcheria. SS. Gene- 
vieve, Severinus, Giles, and many other holy monks and 
nuns were famous in the West. 

10. Even the thrones of the barbarians knew SS. Clotil- 
da and Radegonda, SS. Sigismond and Hermenegild, SS. 
Cloud, Gontran, and Ethelbert. In the episcopate were SS. 
Augustine and Epiphanius, in Italy ; St. Fulgentius, in Af- 
rica ; St. Leander, in Spain ; St. Austin of Canterbury, in 
England ; St. Patrick, in Ireland ; and in France St. Avi- 
tus of Vienne, St. Sidonius of Clermont, St. Eemi of 
Rheims, St. Gregory of Tours, the first historian of the 
Franks, and many more. Twenty-five pontiffs succeeded to 
the chair of Peter from the death of St. Siricius, in 398, 
to the election of St. Gregory the Great in 590. 

SECTION II. Conversion of the Barbarians. 

11. Arianism. — Most of the barbarians who came in close 
contact with the empire were infected with Arianism. 
They denied the divinity of the Christ in whose name they 
had been baptized. Many clung obstinately to their error, 
and these soon disappeared. The Alans and Heruli, once 
so powerful, were unheard of after the sixth century ; the 

9. What was the state of literature at this time 1 Name some of the illustri- 
ous -writers. 10. Name some of the saints of the period. 11-12. Among whom 
did Arianism spread 1 



The Middle Ages. 189 

Vandals lasted but a century ; the reign of the Ostrogoths 
was over in sixty years ; and the Gepidse were crushed on 
the threshold of the empire. 

12. Others, like the Burgundians, though slow to yield, 
yielded at last (517) and were saved. The Suevi were con- 
verted in 562 and blended with the Visigoths, who abjured 
heresy in 587. The Lombards embraced the true faith 
during the pontificate of St. Gregory the Great. 

13. The Franks and Anglo-Saxons. — The Franks and 
Anglo-Saxons, worshippers of the grim Northern deity, 
Odin, knew nothing of Christianity when they came in con- 
tact with Kome. Clovis brought the Franks over to Christ 
(496), while in England the faith slowly spread over the 
land from the lauding of St. Augustin in Kent. 

14. St. Gregory the Great (590-604).— Pope St. Gregory 
ascended the papal chair September 3, 590, and his illus- 
trious reign saw the triumph of the Church over the bar- 
barians and over all the empire. In the East his will was 
respected by the Emperor Maurice and the usurper Pho- 
cas ; while Armenia, Persia, Arabia, Ethiopia, and China 
even, had numbers of Christians. In the West the Lom- 
bards alone, though converted, gave trouble; owing to their 
barbarous instincts. Spain, France, and the Anglo-Saxon 
Heptarchy were strongly Christian. Ireland had already 
become a nucleus of celebrated schools and a nursery of 
great missionaries. The pope was thus enabled to give 
much-needed attention to organizing the internal as 'well as 
external workings of the Church. He encouraged learning, 
set in order the liturgy, and adopted the ecclesiastical chant 
which bears his name. 

13. Who made the Franks Christian'? What of England and the faith? 14. 
Describe the state of Christianity during the pontificate of Gregory the Great. 
How stood Ireland at this time ? Tell of Pope Gregory's reforms. 



SECOND EPOCH (60*-8U). 

FROM THE DEATH OP GREGORY THE GREAT TO THE DEATH OF 
CHARLEMAGNE— 210 YEARS. 

Dtjeing this epoch the formation of Christendom set in and the Carlovingians 
and Arabians arose. 



CHAPTER I. 
THE CAKLOVDTGXANS. 

The Carlovingians, attaining to the chief power among the Franks, checked 
at once the Mohammedan and the German barbarian invasion, destroyed the 
Lombard kingdom, established a new Western Empire, and confirmed the tem- 
poral sovereignty of the Holy See. 

SECTION I. The "Sluggard" Kings and the Mayors of the Palace 

(638-752). 

1. The Merovingians. — On the death of Dagobert I. (638) 
his states were divided between his two sons, Sigebert II., 
to whom fell Austrasia, and Clovis II., whose portion was 
JSTeustria and Burgundy. With these princes, who were 
minors, begins the dynasty of the Merovingians, who were 
rightly called faineants, or " sluggards." The " mayors of 
the palace " obtained control, and reigned in fact if not in 
name. These mayors were originally the chief officers of 
the palace, appointed or removed at the king's will. When 
Sigebert died (575) the Austrasian nobles claimed the right 
of choosing a mayor for his son, then a mere child. This 
claim continued despite the opposition of Queen Brune- 

What was the work of the Carlovingians ? 1. With whom did the Merovin- 
gian dynasty begin ? How were the Merovingians styled? What of the mayors 
of the palace? What occurred on the death of Sigebert ? 

190 



a.d. 613-714. The Middle Ages. 191 

haut, and, chiefly owing to the influence of Pepin the El- 
der of Landen, it finally became an office for life (613). 

2. The Carlovingians. — Pepin laid the foundation of the 
dynasty called Carlovingian from his descendant, Charles 
the Great. The family possessed great wealth and power, 
and from the opening of the seventh century exercised a 
predominating influence in Austrasia. Pepin was a man 
as pious as he was powerful. Grimoald, his son, succeed- 
ed him as mayor of the palace. On the death of Sigebert 

II. (656) he tried to put his own son on the throne, but 
the attempt cost him his life. 

3. The Usurper Ebroin. — Bathilda, widow of Clovis II., 
a Avoman of wisdom and much beloved by her subjects, 
was regent during the minority of her eldest son, Clotaire 

III. She was displaced by the ambitious Ebroin, mayor 
of the palace, whose accession to power brought great evils 
on the country. This treacherous and tyrannical usurper 
made himself master of Neustria and Burgundy, and was 
aiming at Austrasia also when he fell by the hand of an 
assassin (681). The Austrasians had already chosen as 
leader Pepin of Heristal, the grandson of Pepin the 
Elder (679). He was an able warrior and politician. He 
defeated and slew Bertaire, the son and successor of 
Ebroin, and thus secured the triumph of Austrasia. He 
ruled in the name of King Thierry III. over all the 
Prankish Empire, restored order, and enforced his autho- 
rity. He subdued the Germans, Bavarians, Frisians, and 
Saxons, partly by force of arms, partly by zealous Chris- 
tian missionaries. He ruled for twenty-seven years (687- 
714). 

4. Charles Martel (714-741).— Pepin left to his wife, 
Gertrude, the care of his grandson, a child of five, who 

2. Who founded the Carlovingian dynasty? What was the result of Grim- 
oald's ambition ? 3. What of Bathilda and Ebroin 1 What of Pepin of Her- 
istal ? Describe his achievements. 



192 History of the World. [a.d. 714-747 

was named mayor of the palace. But the Austrasians set 
his natural son, Charles, at their head, for they needed a 
warrior. Their choice was wise. He delivered Austrasia 
from JSTeustrian control and entered into a league with the 
powerful Duke Eudes of Aquitaine (719). This done, he 
compelled the German tributaries to return to their alle- 
giance. He soon became actual master of both ISTeustria 
and Austrasia, although allowing the nominal reign of 
Dagobert III., Chilperic II., Clotaire IV., and Thierry IV. 
On the death of Thierry (737) he retained supreme power, 
though never claiming a higher title than Duke of the 
Franks. 

5. Meanwhile the Mussulmans had begun to appear. Af- 
ter ravaging a great part of Asia and Africa they crossed 
over into Spain, where they destroyed the power of the 
Visigoths and made themselves masters of the country. 
Crossing the Pyrenees, they poured into France, defeated 
Eudes of Aquitaine near Bordeaux, and prepared for the 
subjugation of the country. Charles and Eudes met them 
near Poitiers (Oct. 31, 732), and, after a desperate battle, 
completely routed them. This blow saved Western Europe 
from the Mussulmans, and to Charles was given the name 
of Mattel, or "the hammer." He ruled the state with 
wisdom and power, favored the Church and missionaries. 
His reign was made memorable by the labors of St. Boni- 
face in Germany. 

6. On his death the kingdom was divided among his 
sons, Carloman and Pepin. The elder soon retired to the 
monastery of Monte Cassino (747), leaving Pepin sole ruler 
of the empire. Pepin resolved on being ruler in name as 
well as in fact. He had the hearts and the voice of the 
people. The weak Childeric III. was deposed in an as- 

4. Who succeeded Pepin of Heristal % Describe his advance to power. 5. 
What foe to Christianity now appeared? Describe the Mussulman invasion. 
What occurred at Poitiers ? 6. What followed on the death of Charles Martel ? 



a.d. 752-768] The Middle Ages. 193 

sembly of the bishops and nobles of the realm acting un- 
der the sanction of Pope Zachary. Childeric was shut up 
in a monastery, and with him ended the Merovingian dy- 
nasty after lasting two hundred and sixty-nine years (752). 

SECTION II. Pepin the Short (752-768) ; Charlemagne (768-814). 

7. Temporal Sovereignty of the Holy See founded. — 

Pepin was consecrated by St. Boniface at Soissons in 752, 
and in the same year received the submission of Septi- 
manca. In the following year he compelled the Saxons 
to bow to his supremacy. Pope Stephen II. came to seek 
his aid in behalf of the Holy See, then threatened by As- 
tulph, King of the Lombards. Pepin, again crowned by 
Pope Stephen, marched against Astulph and defeated 
him ; but no sooner was the conqueror out of Italy than 
Astulph broke his promises and again threatened Rome. 
Once more Pepin crossed the Alps (755) and threatened 
to deprive the Lombard of all his states unless he fulfilled 
his promises and paid tribute to the Holy See. Pepin 
himself paid homage to the successor of St. Peter, and se- 
cured him in possession of Eome and the exarchate of 
Eavenna. Thus was established the temporal power of 
the popes — a power that in Eome had already existed in 
fact, though subject to the changes of the troublous times. 

8. Pepin's Wars against the Saracens and Barbarians. — 
After his return to France Pepin crossed the Pyrenees and 
drove the Saracens out of Septimanca (759). He invaded 
Aquitaine (760), and after an obstinate struggle he van- 
quished Waifar, grandson of Eucles of Aquitaine. This 
victory secured to him the whole territory of ancient Gaul 
(768). He died the same year, leaving his kingdom to 
his two sons, Carloman and Karl, or Charles. 

7. Tell of the*relations of Pepin with the Pope. How was the temporal power 
of the Papacy established ? 8. What of Pepin and the Saracens 1 How did 
Pepin acquire Gaul ? To whom did he leave his kingdom ? 



194 History of the World. [a.d. 768-785 

9. Charlemagne (768-814).— To Charles, afterwards Charle- 
magne, or the Great, fell the inheritance of Caiioman, his 
brother, on the latter's death (771). He had been bred in 
the camp almost, and was a born warrior. Driving the old 
Duke Hunald out of Aquitaine, he turned against the 
Lombards, who, under Desiderius, successor to Astulph 
and father-in-law to Charlemagne, were besieging Eome. 
Charles crossed the Alps (773), and in a single campaign 
subdued all northern Italy. Desiderius, besieged in Pavia, 
was compelled to surrender "his title of king of the Lom- 
bards to the conqueror (774), and thus ended the Lom- 
bard power. Charlemagne renewed alliance with the Holy 
See. 

10. Charles spent his long reign in constant wars. On 
his return to France from Italy the Saxons revolted. These 
were pagans, settled on both banks of the "Weser, who hated 
the Franks for their manners and their faith. They pil- 
laged churches, massacred missionaries, and put all that 
came in their way to fire and sword. Charlemagne de- 
feated them again and again, but never wholly subdued 
them. To strike terror into them he one day put to 
death four thousand five hundred of their chief men 
(782). He only roused them to greater fury, and a despe- 
rate war was waged until Witikind, their chief, consent- 
ed to receive baptism (785). 

11. The Saxons were not the only foes of Charlemagne. 
He entered Spain and conquered that country from the 
Saracens as far as the Ebro. On his return his rear-guard 
was assailed by the Gascons in the pass of Eoncevaux, 
where fell Eoland, the famous captain, and a large num- 
ber of Charlemagne's bravest warriors. 

12. After the defeat of Witikind a conspiracy was formed 

9. How did Charlemagne attain sole power 1 Describe Ms e'arly campaigns. 
10. What of Charlemagne and the Saxons ? What of Witikind ? 11. What oc- 
curred at Eoncevaux ? 



a.d. 785-800] The Middle Ages. 195 

of the Greeks, Slavs, and Avari, under the lead of Tassillo, 
Duke of Bavaria. Charlemagne overcame it, beat each in 
turn, and deprived Tassillo of 'his duchy (787). The Greeks 
were defeated in Italy ; the Lombard duchy of Beneven- 
tum was compelled to pay tribute ; the Slavs were forced 
to swear fealty ; while the Avari, on the Theiss, were al- 
most wholly destroyed (796), and their vast entrenched 
camp, where the spoils of centuries were heaped up, was 
taken. 

13. Charlemagne Emperor (800). — Charlemagne was now 
master of all the countries that had formed the Empire of 
the West. At Eome he was greeted with the title of Em- 
peror, and on Christmas day, 800, was solemnly crowned 
in the basilica of St. Peter by Pope Leo III. amid the ac- 
clamations of the people. He was then in his fifty-eighth 
year. He continued his conquests from the Ebro to the 
Oder and from Brittany to southern Italy. He subdued 
the Slavs and won over or coerced the German tribes to 
Christianity. 

14. He built a fleet to protect his northern coasts against 
the Northmen, or Normans, whose depredations began to 
be formidable. He chased the Saracens from Sardinia, 
Corsica, and the Balearic Isles. He thus became the pro- 
tector of Christendom from the barbarian tribes of the 
North and the Mussulman fanatics of the South. His 
fame spread to all lands, and the renowned caliph, Harun- 
ar-Bashid, then master of Jerusalem, sent him an em- 
bassy laden with rich presents, while the emperors of Con- 
stantinople sought his alliance. 

15. Government of Charlemagne. — The emperor was as 
great in peace as he was in war. He fixed upon Aix-la- 
Chapelle as his residence, that being the centre of his 

12. What league was formed against Charlemagne ? Tell of Charlemagne's 
conquests. 13. What empire did Charlemagne rule 1 By whom was he crowned? 
14. What does Christendom owe to Charlemagne ? 



196 History of the World. [ a .d. 800-814 

vast empire. His personal authority was absolute, but he 
used wise ministers to assist him with their counsel. He 
was careful about the right government of his people, and 
sought by many safeguards to protect them from the ra- 
pacity of the nobles. He set off the bishops as a check 
against these latter, and kept himself well informed about 
the condition of the people, for whose material, religious, 
and intellectual advancement he was as anxious as a fa- 
ther for that of his family. The laws of Charlemagne, 
called capitulars, were promulgated in general assemblies 
of the bishops and nobles convened every spring and au- 
tumn. Here were discussed all the affairs of Church and 
state. 

16. He called to his court many learned men, chief 
among whom were Peter of Pisa and the Anglo-Saxon 
monk Alcuin. He sent out educational missionaries 
among the people. Numerous schools were established 
throughout the empire, education being under the care 
of the clergy. In the minor schools were taught gram- 
mar, arithmetic, psalmody, and the elements of Christian 
doctrine ; in the major schools sacred and profane sci- 
ence — i.e., theology, Holy Scripture, canon law, and the 
Fathers of the Church, as well as grammar, rhetoric, and 
the higher branches of education. 

17. Charlemagne died at Aix-la-Chapelle in 814, in the 
seventy-second year of his age. He was unquestionably 
one of the greatest as well as one of the best and wisest 
monarchs of the world. 

15. Where was Charlemagne's capital ? How did he govern 1 16. Name some 
of the scholars at Charlemagne's court. What did Charlemagne do for educa- 
tion ? What was taught in the schools ? 17. Where did Charlemagne die ? 



a.d. 570] The Middle Ages. 197 

CHAPTER II. 
MOHAMMEDANISM— THE ARAB EMPIRE. 

Mohammed, the founder of a new religion in the East, inspired his fol- 
lowers with a spirit of proselytisin and conquest. After overrunning a great 
part of Asia and Northern Africa they threatened Europe and Christendom 
until checked by the Pranks. 

SECTION I. Mohammed (570-632). 

1. Rise of Mohammedanism. — While Christianity was push- 
ing its way in the West and through the confines of the 
ancient Eoman Empire, the East remained in comparative 
darkness, many of the tribes and peoples mingling truthful 
traditions with local superstitions and false teachings. In 
570 was born Mohammed, of the Arabian tribe of Ko- 
reish. His family claimed to be descendants of Ismael 
and held the guardianship of the Kaaba, or sacred tem- 
ple, where all the tribes of Arabia worshipped. The Kaaba 
was situated in Hedjaz (Mecca), the chief city of the coun- 
try and the commercial centre between Syria and Yemen 
(Arabia Eelix). 

2. Mohammed's youth was spent in poverty and hard- 
ship, tending herds. He married the rich widow of a kins- 
man, thus gaining wealth and position. He was a man of 
restless ambition, and, to obtain control over his fellows, 
claimed a call from heaven as a prophet and leader of his 
people. To prove his call he lived the life of a recluse in 
a cave near Mecca, where he professed to have visions and 
visitations from the Archangel Gabriel. In his retreat he 
drew up a system which was to become a new law. It 
imposed on its follower (Mussulman) the blindest submis- 
sion to the commands of God speaking by the mouth of 

1. What was the religious condition of the East? Who was Mohammed? 
2. Tell of Mohammed's early life. What claim did he make ? What rule did 
he draw up ? 



198 History of the World. [ a .d. 570-622 

his prophet Mohammed. This was made the primary ar- 
ticle of the new faith. 

3. Mohammed's recruits were few at the beginning. Af- 
ter three years (614) he assembled all the members of 
his family and announced his mission. He appointed his 
cousin AIL a lad of fourteen, his vizier, or lieutenant. The 
majority of the guests believed him mad ; others accepted 
his divine call. For eight years he waged war against his 
enemies and was often on the verge of destruction. At 
last he had to fly from Mecca, being saved by the self-sac- 
rifice of AM. He fled to Yatreb, thenceforth called Me- 
dina-al-nabi, or the City of the Prophet. This flight (Jie- 
gira) marks the beginning of the hegira or era of the Mus- 
sulmans (622). 

4. Mohammed at Medina (622-632); the Holy "War.— 
Mohammed, aided by the inhabitants of Medina, sought 
to propagate his new system by force of arms. He became 
a marauder, attacking wherever he saw an opportunity and 
inspiring courage into his followers by daring and success- 
ful exploits which brought him at once booty, recruits, 
and fame. After various vicissitudes he finally entered 
Mecca at the head of ten thousand men. He destroyed 
the idols at the Kaaba, and the inhabitants of the sacred 
city accepted him as ruler and prophet. 

5. He fanned their spirits with dreams of conquest and 
filled them with enthusiasm for their chief. With Mecca 
as a centre he soon imposed Islamism on the rest of the 
Arabians. Hitherto they had followed a spurious version 
of the true faith. He asked Khosroes, the King of Persia, 
to join with him, and, on that powerful monarch's scornful 
refusal, Mohammed condemned his kingdom to be rent. 
Heraclius, Emperor of the East, and other princes re- 

3. How did Mohammed begin Ms mission? What is meant by hegira? 
4. What was Mohammed's plan of action? What did he do in Mecca? 5. How 
were the Arabs attracted to Mohammed ? 



a.d. 632] The Middle Ages. 199 

ceived the prophet's overtures with more show of respect. 
But the Greeks slew his envoy, and Mohammed declared a 
holy war against them, which proved a conspicuous failure. 
He died within two years after (632), leaving only one 
child, *Fatima, wife of Ali. He was acquainted with both 
Jewish and Christian doctrines, a mixture of which is 
found in his famous Koran. 

6. The Koran. — Mohammed's Koran, or booh, comprises 
the religious and civil code of the Mussulmans. It was 
composed at various times and after long intervals, under 
the inspiration of Heaven, as he claimed. It was given out 
during real or pretended frenzies by Mohammed, his dis- 
ciples taking down the words as they fell from his lips. 
With some wise rulings and teachings it has. much that is 
vicious, contradictory, and abominable. Among other evil 
things it sanctified lewdness, and its promises of heavenly 
reward were but a gratification of animal appetites in 
man. Men were thus led away by it and embraced it with 
a sort of religious enthusiasm. 

[ 7. Its religion was fatalism. The unity of God was pro- 
claimed, the trinity denied. Adam, Noe, Abraham, Mo- 
ses, and Jesus Christ were acknowledged as true prophets ; 
but the divinity of the Saviour was denied, and Moham- 
med was set up as the last and greatest of the prophets. 
The existence of angels, the immortality of the soul, and 
the rewards and punishments of a future life were pro- 
claimed. A number of precepts were enjoined upon the 
faithful regulating their daily life and religious practices, 
among others an everlasting and holy war against unbe- 
lievers, summed up in the exhortation on sending his peo- 
ple forth to the conquest of the world : " Before you is 
paradise, behind you the flames of hell." 

Where did Mohammed find his doctrine ? 6. What is the Koran ? How 
•was it composed 1 ? What is evil in it 1 7. What was the leading doctrine of the 
Mussulmans ? How did they regard the Saviour ? 



200 History of the World. [ad. 632-638 

SECTION II. The Elective Caliphate (632-661). 

8. Mohammed's Successors. — Mohammed appointed no 
successor. He charged his father-in-law, Abu-Bekir, to 
recite the public prayers. Abu-Bekir was accordingly 
made caliph, or vicar (632-634). He named as Kis suc- 
cessor Omar (634-644), who added to the title of caliph 
that of Emir-al-Mumenin (commander of the faithful). 
Omar was as fanatical as he was brave, and became a 
great conqueror. He was assassinated by a slave, and Oth- 
man, Mohammed's secretary, was chosen to succeed him 
(644-655). He was an old man of seventy. Revolts broke 
out. Othman perished and was succeeded by Ali (655- 
661), whose election was again the signal for anarchy. 

9. Mussulman Conquests (632-638). — Abu-Bekir under- 
took the conquest of Syria. Bosra, the key of the coun- 
try, was betrayed into the hands of the Arabs, who then 
advanced on Damascus. An army of seventy thousand 
men, sent to its defence by Heraclius, was cut in pieces by 
Kaled, called the Sword of God. He .entered Damas- 
cus on the day that Omar became caliph and announced 
his intention of attacking the Greeks and Persians. Sixty 
thousand Christian Arabs, sent by Heraclius to deliver Sy- 
ria, were defeated after a terrible conflict, and the Moslems 
hastened to invest Jerusalem. After a four months' siege 
the sacred city succumbed and Omar entered in triumph. 
He compelled the Christians to pay annual tribute, im- 
posed restrictions on the exercise of their religion, and or- 
dered a mosque to be built on the site of Solomon's temple 
(638). Palestine, Syria, and Mesopotamia were soon in the 
conqueror's power. 

10. Conquest of Egypt (639-640) ; Persia (632-642).— 
Amru, the Moslem general, invaded Egypt, whose native 

8. Who succeeded Mohammed 1 Tell of Omar. What followed on the death 
of Omar 1 9. Describe the Mussulman conquest in Syria. How did Jerusalem 
fall 1 What conditions were imposed on the Christians ? 



a.d. 639-661] The Middle Ages. 201 

people had embraced the Eutychian heresy. With their 
aid the conquest was an easy one. Alexandria fell after a 
siege of four months, and its famous library was destroyed. 
The Persian Empire, already rent by civil dissension, fell 
an easy prey. The victory of Kadesiah (636) opened up 
the navigation of the Euphrates to the invaders, while 
that of Nehavend secured to them the conquest of the 
country. They built the city of Kufa as a stronghold on 
the Euphrates. Jezdegerd, the Persian king, seeking aid 
from the Chinese, was slain on the banks of the Oxus 
(652), and with him ended the famous dynasty of the 
Sassanides, which had reigned over Persia for four hun- 
dred and twenty-six years. 

11. End of the Elective Caliphate (661).— Ali, the fourth 
caliph, was cousin and son-in-law to Mohammed. He was 
brave and popular, and would have been elected as suc- 
cessor to Mohammed were it not for the enmity of the 
prophet's widow, Ayesha. She stirred up against him 
Amru, who had been deprived of the government of 
Egypt, and Moaviah, the governor of Syria. The latter 
had conquered Rhodes, Cyprus, the Cyclades, and the 
coast as far as Cilicia. He assumed the title of Com- 
mander of the Faithful, marched against Ali, and in one 
hundred days fought ninety battles with him. 

12. Wearied of the combat, the leaders met to decide 
their quarrel by arbitration, when three fanatics, armed 
with poisoned daggers, swore to slay the authors of the 
civil war. Ali fell mortally wounded (661), Moaviah re- 
ceived a slight wound, and Amru escaped unhurt. Ali's 
followers, regarding him as the only legitimate caliph, ac- 
cept the simple letter of the Koran, and are called Shee- 
ites, or schismatics, by the orthodox. The orthodox, or 

10. By whom was Egypt invaded? What famous library was destroyed? 
What befell Persia ? 11. What occurred during the fourth caliphate ? 12. How 
did the quarrels of the rivals end ? Who are the Sheeites ? 



202 History of the World. [a.d. 661-685 

Sunnites (sanna, tradition), maintain the legitimacy of 
the first three caliphs and of oral tradition. Their de- 
scendants are the Turks, while the Sheeites are chiefly 
found in Persia and other countries of Central Asia. 

SECTION III. The Ommiades at Damascus (661-750). 

13. Hereditary Caliphate. — Moaviah was proclaimed ca- 
liph. He was the son of Abu-Sofian, Mohammed's perse- 
cutor. He supplanted the prophet's own children, thus 
creating enmity against him. He then transferred the ca- 
liphate to Syria, selecting Damascus as his capital. The 
Ommiades, so-called after an ancestor of Moaviah, made 
the caliphate hereditary in their family. In less than 
ninety years Damascus knew fourteen caliphs of the line. 

14. Notwithstanding all civil commotions, war was main- 
tained in the East and in the West. In 670 a fleet un- 
der Yesid, the caliph's son, appeared before Cyzicus, and 
soon after before Constantinople. For eight years the 
struggle for Constantinople was waged, but Moaviah was 
finally compelled to sign a truce of thirty years with Con- 
stantine Pogonatus and a pledge to pay annual tribute 
(678). Meanwhile Akba had entered Africa at the head 
of ten thousand Arabs, founded the city of Kairwan near 
Carthage, and advanced as far as the Atlantic Ocean. But 
the victory of Wamba, King of the Visigoths, the resist- 
ance of the Berbers, and the arrival of a Creek army 
forced Akba to return to Egypt. Zabeir, his successor, 
met with a like ill-fortune. Moaviah died soon after, and 
civil contentions put an end to Moslem conquests for 
twelve years. Persia, Egypt, and Arabia set up caliphs 
of their own. 

15. Conquests in Northern Africa. — Abdul-Melek (685- 

Who are the Sunnites and their descendants'? 13. Who now was proclaim- 
ed caliph 1 What changes were wrought by Moaviah 1 14. What wars were 
maintained all this time 1 Their result ? What followed Moaviah's death ? 



a.d. 685-711] The Middle Ages. 203 

705), the fifth Ommiade caliph, resumed the holy war. 
One of his generals took Armenia and the regions of the 
Caucasus. Turning southward by the Caspian Sea, he seized 
Samarcand from the Turks, while another army penetrated 
as far as Hindostan. Hassan, governor of Egypt, was sent 
into Africa at the head of forty thousand men. There the 
Greeks had fortified Carthage " and destroyed Kairwan. 
Kairwan was rebuilt ; Carthage, taken, retaken, and taken 
again, was finally destroyed (698). The Greeks were driv- 
en from Africa. 

16. Constantinople was in a state of revolution. Hassan 
was only checked by the hardy natives, the Berbers, ISTumi- 
dians, and Mauritanians, led by Queen Cahina. Hassan 
retreated to Egypt; but his successor, Musa, crushed the 
natives, who had slain their brave queen. He sold three 
hundred thousand into slavery, incorporated thirty thou- 
sand in his army, and the rest were compelled to embrace 
Islamism or fly to the deserts and mountains, where their 
descendants are now known as the Tuaregs and Kabyles. 
These conform to Mohammedanism. 

17. Conquest of Spain (711). — The city of Ceuta, in 
Africa, remained to Spain, under Count Julian. The Visi- 
goths of Spain had for king Witiza, who did nothing to 
stay the advance of Musa, the conqueror of Africa, Sar- 
dinia, Corsica, and the Balearic Isles. Witiza was de- 
throned, his eyes were plucked out, and Eoderick was 
chosen in his place. The fallen monarch's sons, aided by 
their uncle, the Archbishop of Toledo, and Count Julian, 
rose against Eoderick. Julian delivered Ceuta to Musa 
and induced him to cross over into Spain. After weigh- 
ing his chances he returned, and at the head of twenty- 
five thousand men under Tarik, his lieutenant, who gave 

15. By whom was the holy war resumed, and -with what results ? What hefell 
Carthago 1 ? 16. What of Queen Cahina 1 TellofMusa's campaign and its result. 
17. What happened in Spain ? Tell of Count Julian and his action. 



204 History of the World. [ a .d. 711 

his name (Gribel al Tarik) to Gibraltar, lie recrossed the 
straits and disembarked near Algesiras (April 28, 711). 
Theodemir, governor of Andalusia, was defeated. King 
Eoderick was unprepared, but hastened to collect an army 
of fifty thousand men, with which he marched against 
the invader. 

18. They met at Xeres.* Eoderick, as a mark of confi- 
dence, had given command of the right and left wings to 
Eba and Sisebut, the sons of Witiza. Julian was with the 
enemy. The battle began on the morning of July 24 and 
raged for three days, the victory lying in the balance. On 
the eve of the fourth day Julian secretly entered the Chris- 
tian camp and so won on tlie feelings of Eba and Sisebut 
that they with their troops passed over to the enemy. 
Weakened and betrayed as he was, Eoderick still held ont 
to the Sunday, when he was slain, fighting, by Tarik. The 
fall of the king decided the day. The conquerors set out 
for Toledo, the capital, which they seized with all its 
treasures. 

19. Spain, having no longer either army, king, or money, 
lay at the mercy of the Moslem. Julian paid the penalty 
of his treachery by being cast into a dungeon, where he 
died. Tarik was rewarded by the enmity of Musa, who 
was jealous of his fame and victory. Musa, sending his 
son Abdul-Aziz in one direction and Tarik in another, 
himself advanced on Narbonne. He was seized by order 
of the caliph, brought back to Damascus, publicly scourg- 
ed, fined, and exiled. Three years later his son's head 
was sent him— he had been massacred by his subjects as 
a reward for his mild rule— and the father died of a 
broken heart. 

20. Pelayo. — The Moslem governors of Spain pushed 

18. Describe the battle of Xeres. What caused Roderick's defeat ? 19. Was 
all Spain subdued? What was Julian's reward? What befell the Moslem 
leaders in tho campaign? 



a.d. 711-717] The Middle Ages. 205 

on their conquests to the Pyrenees. Hence ensued the 
struggles with Eucles of Aquitaine, Charles Martel, Pepin, 
and Charlemagne. A band of the Goths held out invin- 
cible in the mountain passes of the Asturias under Pelayo. 
These harassed the Moslems continually, and to put an end 
to them the emir Alahor sent one hundred and eighty 
thousand Saracens to storm their stronghold. More than 
sixty thousand of them found a grave in the waters of the 
Deva, whither they were cast from the mountain heights 
by the Christian warriors under their intrepid leader. 
Pelayo secured his hold on all the northern coast and 
extended his power as far as Leon. Little by little his 
successors enlarged the kingdom of the Asturias. 

21. Defeat of the Saracens. — The emir Abd-er-Eah- 
man cruelly punished Munusa, one of his subjects, for 
leaguing with the Duke of Aquitaine. He then invaded 
southern Gaul with a large army. Eudes, who had suf- 
fered several defeats, entrenched himself behind the Dor- 
dogne, where he awaited the arrival of Charles Martel. 
The emir advanced, pillaging, sacking, and massacring. 
Aries, Toulouse, Bordeaux, Poitiers were taken and burn- 
ed. Issuing from Poitiers, Abd-er-Eahman found Charles' 
host drawn up before him, and the battle ensued which 
saved Western Europe (October, 732). 

22. Siege of Constantinople.— The caliph Soliman had 
previously sent a still more formidable expedition against 
Constantinople. For thirteen months he invested the 
city of the Caesars by sea and land. Notwithstanding all 
their efforts, they were finally compelled to abandon the 
siege with a terrible loss in ships, men, and money 
(717). Thus were the Moslems signally defeated both 
in the East and in the West. 

20. Who held out in tho North 1 How did Pelayo extend his domain? 21. 
What occurred in Aquitaine? In what famous battle were the Saracens de- 
feated ? 22. Relate what occurred at Constantinople. 



206 History of tee World. [a.d. 717-756 

23. Fall of the Ommiades. — Internal revolution was also 
at work against the Ommiade caliphs. The descendants 
of Mohammed continually plotted and strove to regain 
their inheritance. A new set of claimants, rigorous de- 
votees, now came up in the family of Abbas, uncle of 
Mohammed. Under the three brothers Ibrahim, Abul- 
Abbas-Abdallah, and Al-Mansur, the Abbassides raised a 
revolt which ended in the assumption by Abul-Abbas of 
the caliphate, the killing of Merwan, the Ommiade caliph, 
and the slaughter of the Ommiades, one of whom, Abd- 
er-Eahman, alone escaped (750). 

SECTION IV. The Abbassides. 

24. Caliphate of Bagdad. — The reign of the new caliph 
was bloody, and his death was the signal for civil war, in 
which his brother, Abu-Jaafar, was successful over his 
uncle. Abu-Jaafar, surnamed "the Victorious," restored 
peace in the provinces, built Bagdad, and made that beau- 
tiful city the seat of the caliphate. His grandson was 
the famous Harun-al-Eashid, who sent an embassy to 
Charlemagne and was renowned for the splendor of his 
reign both in war and in the arts of peace. To Harun 
succeeded his three sons, Al-Amin, Al-Mamun, and Ma- 
tassem, each in turn. With the two < last expired the 
glory of the Abbassides (842). For four centuries the 
family continued at Bagdad, but only to witness the gra- 
dual decay of its power and dismemberment of the empire. 

25. Caliphate of Cordova (756). — Abd er-Eahman, the 
young Ommiade who had escaped the sword of Abul-Ab- 
bas, took refuge in Spain, where he was hailed as sove- 
reign by the friends of his family. He repulsed Yusef, 
the Abbasside general, and established a caliphate at Cor- 

23. Who were the Abhassides, and how did they attain to power ? 24. What 
followed on the death' of Abul-Abbas 1 By whom was peace restored ? What of 
Harun-al-Rashid 1 How long did the Abbasside family retain its power ? 



a.d. 758-820] The Middle A ges. 207 

dova, where he built a magnificent mosque. His rule was 
wise and able, and conciliatory to the Christians. He con- 
tended against the kings of the Asturias and the Franks, 
who had seized Narbonne and all Septimauca. Hesham- 
Abul-Walid, his son and successor, strove hard to recap- 
ture ISTarbonne, but was repulsed by a son of Charlemagne. 
The Franks took Barcelona also, and all Spain north of 
the Ebro. This caliphate lasted nearly three centuries. 

26. Dismemberment of the Eastern Caliphate. — In 787 
Edris, great-grandson of Ali, fled from Arabia to Barbary, 
or Mauritania, which he conqnered. Here the Alide dy- 
nasty ruled for two centuries. The son of Edris built Fez, 
the capital of the Edrisides. Three years after Edris' flight 
came Ibrahim-Abu-Abdallah, son of Aglab. He settled at 
Kairwan and extended his dominion over Algiers, Tunis, 
and Tripoli. He also seized upon Sardinia, and treason de- 
livered Sicily to his successors. His descendants, the Agla- 
bades, were dispossessed after a century by the Fatimite 
caliphs, who were rivals of the Abbassides. They claimed 
descent from Fatima, daughter of Mohammed. Subduing 
all northern Africa, they seized Egypt and built Cairo, 
which they made their capital. Their caliphate soon ex- 
tended to Arabia, Palestine, and Syria, and to the gates 
of Bag'dad. 

27. In the East Taher, Al-Mamun's general, declared him- 
self master of Khorassan and Turkistan (820). But his de- 
scendants soon gave way to the Sofarides, who in turn yield- 
ed to the Samanides. In Persia the Bui'des ruled and op- 
pressed the caliphs of Bagdad until the Seljuk Turks came. 
The Tartar sovereigns, called sultans, settled at Gazna, in 
the valley of the Indus, whence they subjugated the Mos- 
lems of Imaus and the rajahs of Hindostan. 

25. Who established the Cordova caliphate ? What wars did it wage, and how 
long did it last ? 26. Where did the Alide dynasty rule ? What of the Fatimite 
caliphs ? 27. What of the Sofarides and Samanides ? What of the Tartars ? 



208 History of the World. 

SECTION V. Arabian Civilization. 

28. The beginning of Arabian power was full of turmoil 
and strife. The desire of the Arabs was to projoagate the 
Koran, whose doctrine of fatalism was opposed to the free 
impulses of the mind and the development of letters and 
the arts. The nation was an agglomeration of warrior 
tribes, who, as their power increased, left to Christians or 
Jews the administration of civil affairs and the transac- 
tions of commerce. 

29. As their conquests increased and they came more in 
contact with other peoples they acquired some of the know- 
ledge and civilization belonging to those peoples. From 
China came paper, from India the numerals known as Ara- 
bic, from India and Persia costly textile fabrics, from the 
Greeks art, from the ancient authors science. Architects 
from Constantinople built their splendid mosques and 
houses. The Arabs themselves became skilled as deco- 
rators, hence Arabesque work. Astronomy and medicine 
were their favorite sciences. The fatalism of their creed, 
however, destroyed the life of every pursuit save war, and 
only a certain eminence was ever reached by them in a 
few departments of human knowledge and skill. 



CHAPTEE III. 

THE EASTERN EMPIRE IN THE SEVENTH AND 
EIGHTH CENTURIES. 

SECTION I. The Heraclian Dynasty and Monothelism. 

1. Disastrous Beginnings. — Phocas, the murderer of the 
Emperor Maurice and his family, made himself hateful by 
his cruelties. Heraclius, son of the exarch of Africa, was 

28. What was the chief object of the Arabian power? To whom did the 
Arabs leave the care of trade and commerce 1 29. What came of Arab contact 
with other peoples 1 Name their favorite sciences. What of their creed ? 



a. d. 610-626] The Middle Ages. 209 

invited by Phocas' son-in-law to rid the empire of the 
tyrant. As his fleet entered the Bosporus Phocas was 
brought to him in chains. " Govern better ! " was his 
reply to all his conqueror's reproaches. The empire was 
menaced at the north by the Avari and southern Slavs. 
Khosroes II., King of Persia, ravaged Syria, Palestine, 
Asia Minor, sacking Antioch, Alexandria, and Jerusalem. 
For eight years Constantinople suffered the severest dis- 
tress from the Avari. Heraclius was powerless against the 
enemy, and fear of a popular outbreak alone prevented his 
transferring the court to Africa. 

2. Triumph of Heraclius (620-630). — Roused at last from 
his lethargy, he permitted the Croatians, Slavonians, Ser- 
vians, and other Slavic tribes to settle in the country they 
still occupy, and so serve as a protection to his north- 
western frontier. Raising a powerful army from their 
ranks, he entered Persia. Success crowned his efforts, and 
after seven years of victories he completely overcame the 
Persians, destroying their sacred cities and reaching even 
their capital, Ctesiphon. Here he learned of the violent 
death of Khosroes at the hands of his son, Siroes. He 
made an advantageous treaty of peace with Siroes, and re- 
stored the true cross, which had been stolen from Jerusa- 
lem at the sacking of the city. 

3. Meanwhile Constantinople had narrowly escaped fall- 
ing into the hands of Baian, chief of the Avari, who had 
come to the aid of a Persian army. Bonosius, the patri- 
cian, so stimulated the citizens that they repulsed the 
Avari with great loss (626). The Avari lost their ascen- 
dency and were compelled to retire to Pannonia, where 
they were afterwards exterminated by Charlemagne. 

4. Decline of Heraclius. — Heraclius did not maintain his 

1. Describe the reign of Phocas and its end, By what foes was the empire 
threatened 1 ? 2. What means did Heraclius adopt to guard the empire? How 
did he succeed in Persia ? 3. What occurred at Constantinople meanwhile ? 



210 History of the World. [a.d. G26-680 

prestige and fell again into a torpor. He failed to make 
liead against the Mussulmans ; his armies were defeated 
by them, his chief cities captured, and his Eastern pro- 
vinces lost to Christendom. To add to the evils of the 
doomed empire heresy again crept in through some Euty- 
chians who, fearing to deny openly the two natures in 
Christ, denied his two wills, thus overthrowing the doc- 
trine of the Redemption. The sees of Alexandria, Anti- 
och, and Constantinople were filled by members of their 
sect. Even Pope Honorius was deceived by tliem, though 
warned when too late by St. Sophronius, the patriarch 
of Jerusalem. Heraclins fell into the snare and pub- 
lished an edict in favor of the heresy, which Pope John 
IV. afterwards compelled him to disavow. 

5. Family of Heraclius. — Heraclius died in March, 641. 
In the following June his tomb was profaned by his eldest 
son, Constantine III. In August Heracleonas, his youngest 
son, had his nose cut off and was deposed to make room for 
Constans II., his nephew. Constans, unable to withstand 
the Mussulmans, upheld the Monothelites and published an 
edict forbidding all religious discussion. He banished the 
pope, St. Martin, from Rome, and murdered his own bro- 
ther. He set sail for Italy under a pretence of reconstruct- 
ing the empire, and, after seven years of evil government 
there, was assassinated at Syracuse (G68). 

6. His son, Constantine IV. (Pogonatus, or " the Beard- 
ed "), put down a revolt, quelled a mutiny of his soldiers, and 
for six years successfully defended his capital against the 
Arabs. He caused the Monothelite heresy to be condemn- 
ed by the Sixth (Ecumenical Council of Constantinople 
(680). His son, Justinian II., did not follow the good 
example of his father. After a ten years' reign his nose 

4. Did Heraclius follow up his victories ? What heresy crept iu ? The result ? 

5. What ensued oil the death of Heraclius 1 Describe the reign of Constans II. 

6. Who succeeded Constans ? Describe the reign of Constantine IT. 



a.d. 680-726] The Middle Ages. 211 

was cut off and he was banished. Aided by Tarbelis, 
King of the Bulgarians, he returned to Constantinople, 
mutilated and slew his two competitors, and at last was 
himself beheaded (711). He is responsible for the aboli- 
tion of celibacy in the East by a council convoked by 
him. 

SECTION II. The Iconoclastic Isaurian Emperors. 

7. Three princes succeeded in rapid turn to the throne. 
One of them, Anastasius II., was a zealous Christian and 
an able ruler. He raised an expedition against the Arabs 
(715), but the sailors mutinied and proclaimed Theodosins 
emperor. Anastasius was defeated and retired to a mon- 
astery. Theoclosius ascended the throne, but was driven 
from it by Leo, the general of Anastasius, who seized it for 
himself. Leo III., surnamed the Isaurian, proved an able 
prince so far as guarding his empire went, but at home he 
was the cause of grave disorders. 

8. Iconoclastic Edict (726). — Leo issued an edict against 
the images of Chrisfc, the Blessed Virgin, and the saints, 
forbidding any honor to be paid to them and commanding 
their removal from churches and private houses ; hence 
the title "iconoclast," or image-breaker. St. Germanus, 
patriarch of Constantinople, protested against* the edict, 
and was forced to abdicate. There was a general resist- 
ance to the law, and the result was maltreatment, burn- 
ing, and exile on all sides. St. John Damascen, a subject 
and secretary of an Ommiade caliph, wrote a defence of 
the images. Leo cut off the hand with which it was writ- 
ten. Pope St. Gregory II. wrote a letter of expostulation. 
He was stripped of his possessions, and only the resistance 
offered by the Romans and other Italians saved him from 
banishment. 

What of Justinian II. ? What did he abolish 1 7. What occurred on the 
death of Justinian ? What of Leo the Isaurian 1 8. What edict did he issue? 
What does iconoclast mean ? How did Leo treat opposition to the decree ? 



212 History of the World. [a.d. 726-818 

9. Leo was succeeded by his son, Constantine V., whose 
reign was one series of wars abroad and disturbances at 
home. He continued to make war on the images. He 
even caused painting to be condemned and St. John Da- 
mascen and all faithful Christians to be anathematized. He 
died consumed by ulcers ; his bones were exhumed and 
burned in the place of public execution. His successor, 
Leo IV., also favored the heresy, but less violently. Con- 
stantine VI. was only ten years old on being called to the 
throne. His mother, Irene, restored peace to the Church 
and organized several successful expeditions against the 
Arabs. An oecumenical council, assembled at Nice, re- 
established the veneration of sacred images (787). 

10. As soon as Constantine came of age he imprisoned 
his mother and mutilated his four uncles, who conspired 
against him. Irene, escaping, regained her power, had her 
son's eyes put out, and then proceeded to reign alone. 
She was in turn dethroned by Nlcephorus, who revived all 
the heresies. He was defeated by the Bulgarians and his 
skull converted into a drinking-cup by Crum, their king. 
Peace was restored by Michael, son-in-law of Mcephorus. 
But he was betrayed to the Bulgarians by Leo the Arme- 
nian, who succeeded him (813), and the iconoclastic perse- 
cution was furiously renewed. 



CHAPTEE IV. 

THE CHUBCH AND CHRISTIAN CIVILIZATION. 

SECTION I. Influence of the Pope and the Bishops. 

1. Through all this turmoil East and West the Church, 
especially in the person of her supreme head, the pope, was 

9. How did Constantine Y. behave 1 What befell him ? By whom was peace 
restored? What council occurred during this reign? 10. What course did 
Constantine pursue on attaining his majority ? Outline what followed. 



The Middle Ages. 213 

winning its way to authority and love among the people. 
Its temporal independence freed it from the fatal attach- 
ment of Greek politics. It became strong enough to treat 
with kings, while it gained the respect of the new and vig- 
orous races. The Romans were gradually estranged from 
Constantinople and the falling empire, and looked to their 
own soil and people, where the pope was now the chief 
figure, for protection. 

2. The princes of the West naturally regarded the popes 
as the chiefs of Christendom. Hence they came in time 
to be consecrated, advised, and warned by them, and often 
helped them and the missionaries in turn. Both religion 
and national independence, as Aveil as general culture and 
civilization, derived great benefits from this alliance be- 
tAveen the growing Christian powers and the heads of the 
Church. 

3. With the popes grew the bishops, many of whom 
became important officers in the state as well as in the 
Church, and wise councillors in public affairs. This also 
led to some abuse, but in the beginning it was high- 
ly beneficial, both to Church and state. Charles Martel, 
for instance, bestowed benefices and ecclesiastical titles on 
some of his warriors in reward for their services, but this 
was put a stop to by Charlemagne. 

SECTION II. Tlie Monks of the West. 

4. While Mohammedanism pushed back Christianity in 
the south of Europe, it only drove it north and west. Scot- 
land was converted by Irish monks, chief among whom was 
St. Columba, who established a famous monastery at Ion a, 
in the Hebrides, which soon became a renowned seat of 
learning. Luxeuil was founded by St. Colmnbanus near 

1. Describe the progress of the Church at this period. Who became the chief 
figure iu Korae ? 2, What came of the alliance between the princes and the 
popes ? 3. What of the bishops ? 4. Tell of St. Columba and his work. 



214 History of tee World. 

Besancon, in France. He then passed into Germany to 
preach the Gospel to the tribes in the vicinity, and visited 
Italy, where he labored many years. St. Gall, a disciple 
of his, penetrated to the Swiss mountains and founded a 
monastery, which to this day gives its name to a nourish- 
ing canton. These were Irish monks all. Another, St. 
Kilian, preached in Bavaria and Franconia, and suffered 
martyrdom for the faith. St. Albert, or Adalbert, left his 
see of Cash el, and, with St. Erhard, labored in Eatisbon. 
Anglo-Saxon monks followed in their wake, and Frankish 
nobles left camp and court to join the noble army of mis- 
sionaries. 

5. The Franks, SS. Emmeran and Corbinian, complet- 
ed the conversion of Bavaria and Franconia. SS. Eloi, 
Amand, and Vulfran converted Belgium and preached in 
Friesland. Friesland was long stubborn, but at last yield- 
ed to the zeal of the Anglo-Saxon monks "Wilfrid, Willi- 
brord,. and Winfrid. Willibrord, who afterwards baptized 
Pepin the Short, founded the bishopric of Utrecht, and 
by purchasing thirty young Danish slaves, of whom he 
made missionaries, prepared the way for the conversion of 
Denmark. Winfrid, better known as St. Boniface, spent 
forty years in founding schools, churches, and bishoprics 
in Friesland, Hesse, Thuringia, and Saxony. He conse- 
crated Pepin the Short, and was afterwards martyred by 
the Saxons. The Abbey of Fulda was one of his founda- 
tions. By subduing the Saxons Charlemagne opened the 
road for the conversion of all Germany as well as of Scan- 
dinavia and the Slavonic races. 

6. Monasteries began to abound. They were the great 
schools of the people, where labor as well as literature was 
honored and taught, where the learned found a retreat, 

Tell of the work of other Irish missionaries. 5. Who converted Bavaria 
and Franconia ? Describe the missionary work in the North. Tell of the work 
of St. Winfrid, and of Charlemagne. 



The Middle Ages. 215 

the poor a home, and the unfortunate a refuge in days of 
constant war and turmoil. 

7. In the East the seventh century produced little more 
than the writings of St. Sophronius, of Jerusalem, and of the 
Abbot St. Maximus, of Constantinople, against the Mono- 
thelites. The violence of the iconoclasts led to a reaction, 
and Christian apologists multiplied. In the West, in the 
same century, Spain and France produced SS. Isidore, 
Ildefonsus, Eloi, and Onen, all famous for their writings. 
Then there was a lapse of nearly a century in those coun- 
tries : in Spain owing to the Mohammedan invasion, and 
in France to the decline of the Merovingian kings, as well 
as to the possession of nearly all the episcopal sees by 
Charles Martel's unlettered warriors. From the death of 
Leo II. to Gregory II. (683-715) Italy and Eome suffered 
from the common darkness. On the other hand, England 
was rich in learned men and schools ; and the names of 
the Creek monk Theodore, Archbishop of Canterbury, Ab- 
bot Adrian, his friend, Benedict Biscop, Egbert of York, 
and Alcnin illustrate the time and the annals of the 
Church. 

8. There are many other illustrious ecclesiastics called 
up by the mention of Charlemagne and Alcuin whose 
lives were devoted to learning and virtue, and who found- 
ed thousands of schools throughout the vast empire of 
the Franks. Thus the havoc wrought in the decaying 
and vicious Eastern Empire was more than counterbal- 
anced by the rise and spread of truth and virtue among 
the sturdier races of the north and of the west. 

6. What of the monasteries and their influence on the people ? 7. Mention 
some great writers of the seventh century. What occasioned the decline in 
Spain and France ? What of England ? 8. How was the Eastern decline offset? 



THIRD EPOCH (814-1073), 

FROM THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE TO THE ACCESSION OP ST. 
GREGORY VII.— 259 YEARS. 

The third epoch embraces the formation of feudal Europe, before which 
Charlemagne's empire disappears. A new invasion of barbarians comes down 
from the north. The German kings, as heirs of Charlemagne, obtain prepon- 
derance in Europe. The Mussulmans recede before the Spanish Christians, 
but overwhelm the Greeks, who separate from the Catholic centre. The Slavs 
and Scandinavians are converted to Christianity. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE CAELOVmGIABT EMPIEE AEB THE EEITDAL 

SYSTEM. 

The Carlovingian empire is broken up first into three, after into seven 
kingdoms, which, under the feudal system, undergo a further dismemberment. 

SECTION I. Tne two Dismemberments of the Carlovingian Empire 
(843 and 888). 

1. Louis le Bebonnaire (814-840).— With Charlemagne 
disappeared the mighty empire he created. It fell to 
pieces under his weak successors, who could not make a' 
stand against the inroads of the barbarians or the rival- 
ries of their own nobles. Moreover, the elements of the 
empire were diverse as to race, language, laws, customs, 
and interests. Revolts at once broke out under Louis le 
Debonnaire, Charlemagne's son and successor. To main- 
tain the empire Louis divided it among his three sons 
in the assembly of Aix-la-Chapelle (817). To Lothaire, 

What does the third epoch embrace ? What monarchs obtained preponderance 
in Europe 1 What of the Mussulmans, the Slavs and Scandinavians f 1. What 
became of Charlemagne's empire ? By whom and how was the empire divided ? 

316 



a. d. 814-843] The Middle Ages. 217 

the eldest, fell Italy with the expectation of the impe- 
rial crown ; to Pepin and Louis, Aquitaine and Bavaria. 
Bernard, grandson of Charlemagne and already king of 
Italy, protested against this division ; but his eyes were 
put out by Louis, and he died of his sufferings. In re- 
morse the emperor imposed a public penance on him- 
self. 

2. Later on, yielding to the ambition of his second 
wife, Judith of Bavaria, Louis favored her son, Charles the 
Bald, to the injury of his brothers. They flew to arms 
and shut their father in a monastery (830). Quarrel- 
ling among themselves, the emperor again ascended the 
throne ; but by bestowing Aquitaine on Charles he 
provoked another rebellion. His army fell from him, 
and he was deposed and publicly degraded (833). The 
disagreement of the brothers and their shameful treat- 
ment of the emperor aroused public indignation. Louis 
was restored to the throne, but his favoritism caused 
another revolt, during which he died. He it was who 
confirmed the little republic of Andorra in the Pyrenees, 
founded by Charlemagne (790), and existing to this day. 

3. First Dismemberment.— The rivalries of the three 
sons of Louis led to the first dismemberment of the 
empire of Charlemagne. Lothaire assumed the title of 
emperor. Aided by his nephew, Pepin of Aquitaine, 
he aimed at the mastery of the Avhole empire. Charles 
and Louis united their forces against him. They de- 
feated Lothaire at Fontanet, near Auxerre (841). Peace 
was restored at Verdun, v/here the three brothers met 
and agreed to divide their patrimony (843). Lothaire 
was acknowledged as emperor, and received, with Italy, 
all the territory bounded on the east by the Alps and 

What befell Bernard, King of Italy. 2. How did his sons treat Louis 1 De- 
•scribe the succession of events up to Louis' death. What republic did Louis con- 
firm ? 3. What of the rivalries of Louis' sons ? To what did they agree ? 



Si 8 History of the World. [ a .d. 840-879 

the Ehine, and on the west by the Ehone, Saone, Meuse, 
and Scheldt. Charles received western Gaul, and Louis, 
Germany. This was the beginning of the Italian, French, 
and German nations. 

4. Charles the Bald (840-877) and his Successors. — 
Charles never possessed all western Gaul. JSTomenoe 
assumed the title of king of Brittany and maintain- 
ed it against Charles, and transmitted it to his sons 
with all the country as far as the Mayenne. Pepin II., 
King of Aquitaine, was abandoned by his subjects for 
having made an alliance with the Saracens and Normans. 
His patrimony rested in the hands of the Count of 
Toulouse and other powerful and independent nobles. 
The Normans ravaged the coast and advanced to Paris. 
Charles bought them off, only to induce others to follow. 
Moreover, he was constantly quarrelling with his neighbors. 
In 869 he seized Lotharingia, or Lorraine — that portion 
of Lothaire II. 's kingdom which lay between the Saone 
and the Scheldt, the Jura and the Ehine. When Louis 
II. , brother of Lothaire II., died (875), Charles obtained 
the title of emperor, but failed to dispossess the three 
sons of his brother, Louis the German (876). Called 
into Italy to meet the Saracens, he issued the edict of 
Kiersy-sur-Oise (877), by which the tenure of countries 
was declared hereditary. This was the foundation of the 
feudal system in France. Charles was finally betrayed, 
and perished in a hut at the foot of Mont Cenis. 

5. He was succeeded by his son, Louis II., the Stammer- 
er. Weaker even than his father, he soon abandoned the 
throne to his two sons, Louis III. and Carloman. They 
were able princes, but failed to oust Boson, who had been 
proclaimed king of Provence (879). At their death there 

4. Who ruled in Brittany ? What happened in Aquitaine ? What of the Nor- 
mans ? What other quarrels had Charles ? What was the edict of Kiersy sur- 
Oise ? 5. What happened on the death of Charles ? 



The Middle Ages. 219 

remained Charles the Simple, their brother, a minor, and 
Charles^of Suabia, a son of Louis the German, as the le- 
gitimate representatives of the dynasty. The Suabian 
was chosen emperor (884), but he Avas not able enough 
to hold his inheritance. The Normans besieged Paris 
(886). After a gallant defence of eleven months Charles 
appeared at the head of a formidable army, only to buy 
the Normans off with permission to them to ravage Bur- 
gundy. 

6. Dismemberment into Seven Kingdoms (888). — The in- 
competent emperor was deposed at the diet of Tribur (887), 
and died in the following year. The dissolving empire was 
finally divided into seven kingdoms : 1, the kingdom of 
Germany, under Arnulf of Carinthia, a natural son of Car- 
loman of Bavaria, and nephew of Charles of Suabia ; 2, 
the kingdom of France, under Eudes, Duke of France and 
Count of Paris ; 3, the kingdom of Italy, under Gny, 
Duke of Spoleto, who had for rival Berenger, Duke of 
Friuli ; 4, the kingdom of Provence, or Cis-Juran Bur- 
gundy, under Louis the Blind, son of Boson ; 5, the king- 
dom of Trans-Juran Burgundy, under Kudolph Welf ; 6, 
Lorraine, under Zwentibald, a natural son of Arnulf ; 7, 
Navarre, under Fortunus the Monk. These were in turn 
divided into a number of semi-independent fiefs under 
nobles powerful enough to maintain them. 

SECTION II. Feudalism ia Europe. 

7. The barbarian chiefs who settled in the Soman Em- 
pire rewarded their chief warriors by dividing among them 
portions of the conquered territory as freeholds exempt 
from dues. These lands were first called benefices, after- 
wards fiefs, or fees. The grants were revocable at will. 

How did Charles of Suabia come to the crown? What famous siege occurred 
and how did it end ? 6. What befell Charles ? How was the empire divided? 
7. What were freeholds, benefices, and fiefs, and what did they entail? 



220 History of the World. 

They imposed military service on the holder, and certain 
dues in money or in kind. 

8. In the loose state of society prevailing the more pow- 
erful of the holders naturally strove to free themselves from 
all obligations and become independent. The troubles of 
the times and the weakness of Charlemagne's descend- 
ants favored their pretensions. Charles the Bald yielded 
to them partially in the edict of Mersen (847), and wholly 
by the edict of Kiersy-sur-Oise (877). By the first edict 
freeholders, who up to then had been subject directly to 
the crown, were allowed to choose protectors to defend 
them from the dangers that threatened. So they put 
themselves under the protection of the most powerful 
lords by offering these their services in return. 

9. Thus most of the freeholds became actual fiefs held 
underobligations of military service. By the second edict 
Charles, to gain the aid of the nobles, granted them here- 
ditary ownership not only of the fiefs, but also of the gov- 
ernment of them and public functions, which up to that 
time were only temporary commissions. The great nobles 
thus became independent sovereigns on their own estates, 
with liberty to make war, administer justice, coin money, 
levy taxes, etc. Even the domains of the Church were for 
the most part transformed into fiefs. 

10. In the tenth century France had seven leading fiefs, 
whose holders were known as grand feudatories, peers, or 
immediate vassals of the king. These were the duchies of 
France, Normandy, Burgundy, and Aquitaine, and the 
counties of Toulouse, Flanders, and Vermandois. They 
each comprised a great number of secondary fiefs, whose 
holders were known as rear vassals, or vavassors. When 
Eudes, the Duke of France, became king in 888, there only 

8. How did feudalism originate ? 9. What concessions did Charles the Bald 
make to the nobles, and with what result 1 10. Name the fiefs in France during 
the tenth century. What were vavassors ? 



a.d. 888-923] The Middle Ages. 221 

remained six lay peers. To these were later added six 
ecclesiastical peers. 

11. After the ninth and tenth centuries feudalism was 
carried by the victorious Normans into southern Italy and 
England, and by the Crusaders into the East. Germany 
became feudal with France. Her chief peers were the 
dukes of Saxony, Franconia, Suabia, Bavaria, Lorraine, the 
county palatine, and the margraves of Brandenburg, Mis- 
nia, and Carinthia. In Italy were the duchies of Friuli 
and Spoleto, the marquisates of Ivrea, Tuscany, and Ca- 
merino, and the county of Tusculum. In Spain, Portugal, 
and the northern states of Europe feudalism was never 
wholly developed. 



SECTION III. The last Carlovingians (888-987) and the first three Cape- 
tian Kings (987-1060). 

12. Last of the Carlovingians. — Eudes, the gallant de- 
fender of Paris against the Normans, was chosen king af- 
ter the deposition of Charles. Strong and brave as he was, 
the party of Charles the Simple, son of Louis the Stam- 
merer, was too powerful to subdue ; so Eudes ceded to 
him half the kingdom (896). By the death of Eudes 
Charles became sole king, and, unable to combat the 
Normans, he ceded to Eollo, their chief (911), the part 
of Neustria called, after them, Normandy. The weak- 
minded Charles became the victim of his ministers, and 
Robert, Duke of France, the brother of Eudes, assumed 
the title of king, but was slain - in battle at Soissons. His 
son, Hugh the Great, assumed command and totally rout- 
ed the royal forces (923). Hugh threw the crown to his 
brother-in-law, Raoul, Duke of Burgundy, whose reign 

11. By whom, was feudalism spread abroad, aiid in what nations? 12. Who 
succeeded Charles'? What action did Eudes take? What followed on Eudes' 
death ? What of Normandy ? Who defeated Charles ? 



222 History of the World. [ a .d. 923-99G 

was divided between warring against the Hungarians or 
the rebels at home (923-936). 

13. Charles the Simple was made prisoner by the Count 
of Vermandois, and died in the castle of Peronne (929). 
His son, a fugitive to England, was recalled and proclaim- 
ed king under the title of Louis IV. (936-954). Hugh 
the Great had brought him to the throne. Louis never- 
theless attempted the conquest of Vermandois and Nor- 
mandy, but was defeated and taken prisoner by Hugh, who 
deprived him of the county of Laon. A solemn sentence 
of excommunication alone induced Hugh to restore to the 
monarch what was left him of his domain. 

14. Louis was succeeded by his son Lothaire (954-986), 
whom Hugh supported. Hugh, dying, left his inheritance 
to his son, Hugh Capet. King Lothaire gained the alle- 
giance of the lords and marched against Lorraine, long a 
disputed territory between France and Germany. He near- 
ly surprised the emperor, Otho II., at Aix-la-Chapelle. 
Then Otho, eluding him, advanced to the heights of 
Montmartre, commanding Paris, and struck terror into 
the city (980). Peace was made, and Lothaire set to 
work to restore the royal authority at home, when he 
died. His only son, Louis V., succeeded him (986-987), 
but died after a few months' reign, being the last of the 
Carlovingian dynasty, which lasted two hundred and thir- 
ty-five years. 

15. The Capetians; Hugh Capet (987-996).— In the as- 
sembly at Senlis Hugh Capet, Duke of France, was chosen 
to succeed Louis V. Louis' uncle, Charles of Lorraine, 
claimed the right of succession, but was imprisoned and 
ended his days in the castle of Orleans. The great nobles 
were harder to subdue. Hugh was only allowed full au- 

13. What became of Charles the Simple and his son ? 14. To whom did Hugh 
the Great leave his inheritance 1 Describe the struggle between Lothaire and 
Otho. In whom did the Carlovingian dynasty end ? 15. Who succeeded 1 



a.d. 996-1041] The Middle A ges. 223 

tliority in his own domain, the dukedom of France. By 
renouncing his authority over ecclesiastical benefices he 
gained the support of the clergy. He had his son Robert 
crowned during his lifetime, and, his successors following 
this example, the hereditary transmission of the crown to 
the eldest son of the monarch became sanctioned by cus- 
tom and finally a fundamental law of the state. 

16. Robert (996-1031) and Henry I. (1031-1060).— Ro- 
bert's reign was disturbed by turmoils in his own family, 
which he quelled. At the death of his uncle Henry he 
took possession of the duchy of Burgundy. Henry I., Ro- 
bert's son, began his reign by quelling a revolt of his bro- 
ther Robert, which was instigated by the ambitious queen- 
mother, Constance. He pardoned his brother and gave him 
Burgundy as an inheritance. France was desolated by a 
famine during the first three years of his reign. The no- 
bles were ever up in arms against each other, and the peo- 
ple suffered terribly from the , double scourge. To abate 
this civil strife the Truce of God was, at the Church's in- 
stigation, established throughout Europe (1041). It was a 
solemn compact in the name of Cod to observe peace dur- 
ing Advent, Lent, the octave of the principal feasts, and 
from every Wednesday evening to the following Monday 
morning. Clerks and laymen everywhere formed confra- 
ternities, binding themselves by oath to fight to death 
for the observance of the Truce of God. Much bloodshed 
and strife was thus prevented. Henry, the year before his 
death, had Philip I., his eldest son, solemnly crowned at 
Rheims. 

What of Hugh Capet and the clergy ? What important custom did he insti- 
tute'? 16. What great acquisition did Rohert make? What followed on the death 
of Robert ? What was the Truce of God 



224 History of the World. [a.d. 800-916 



CHAPTER II. 

THE INVASIONS OF THE NINTH AND TENTH 
CENTURIES. 

At the fall of the Carlovingian Empire there were new invasions : on the 
south the Arabs, on the east the Hungarians, and on the north and west the 
Normans. 

SECTION I. Invasions of the Saracens and Hungarians. 

1. The Saracens, holding Spain and the African coasts, 
easily conquered Corsica, Sardinia, and the other Medi- 
terranean islands, which served them as so many centres 
whence to carry on their depredations. From Sicily they 
invaded southern Italy, which, weakened by the dissensions 
of the Creeks and Lombards, fell almost entirely into their 
hands. Pope Leo IV. set chains across the Tiber to inter- 
rupt its navigation, and walled in the Vatican quarter, 
thence called the Leonine City (855). His heroism found 
a strong ally in the Emperor Lords II., son of Lothaire. 
All Italians were summoned to the defence of their coun- 
try, and the infidels, after a series of reverses, were driven 
to their entrenched camp on the G-arigliano (916), losing 
all their conquests on the Peninsula. 

2. In France they had gained possession of the mouths 
of the Ehone (841). After sacking Aries and Marseilles 
they took up a strong position at Fraxinet, which they 
made their base of operations against Provence, Dauphiny, 
and the neighboring territories. 

3. With the passes of the Alps in their hands they cut 
off communication between France and Italy. They seized 
the abbot of Cluny, and claimed as a ransom all the trea- 

What invasions occurred during the ninth and tenth centuries 1 1. Describe 
the Saracen conquests in Europe. How came the Leonine City ? What ally 
had the pope ? 2. Describe the Saracen conquests in France. 



a.d. 972-1033] The Middle Ages. 225 

sures of his great monastery. Thereupon the nobles of the 
country, uniting under William, Viscount of Marseilles, suc- 
ceeded in clearing Fraxinet and the Provencal coasts of 
Saracens (972). 

4. The Hungarians. — Towards the close of the ninth cen- 
tury the Hungarians, or Magyars, came down from the Ural 
and settled, under Arpacl, their chief, in the valley between 
the Theiss and the Danube. They blended with the few 
Avari, people of the same race, residing there. Arnulf of 
Germany asked their aid against the Moravians, whom they 
destroyed in a single campaign. Flushed with success, they 
crossed the Alps into Italy, which, owing to local rivalries, 
fell an easy prey to them. Ascending the Danube soon 
after, they turned into France r committing horrible excesses 
wherever they passed. While making for Cordova to pil- 
lage the city of the caliphs they were met and beaten 
in Aquitaine by Eaymond, the gallant Count of Toulon se 
(925). Germany suffered still more terribly than France 
from them, and their irruptions were only stopped by their 
overwhelming defeat near Augsburg (955) by Otho I. 

5. Christianity alone succeeded in taming them and 
changing their ferocious natures. Vai'c, their chief, being 
baptized, helped to convert his people. In baptism he took 
the name of Stephen. As a testimony to his great services 
Pope Sylvester II. sent him a crown (1000) with the title 
of "apostolic king," which the emperors of Austria still 
retain. Stephen (997-1033) not only spread Christianity 
among his people but organized the government. He 
established schools, churches, bishoprics. He formed a 
legislative body and introduced some of the feudal customs. 
He conquered Transylvania and subdued the Bulgarians and 
Slavs. 

3. What of the abbot of Cluny? 4. Tell of the Hungarians. Describe their 
invasions. 5. How were the Hungarians converted ? Tell of the work of King 
Stephen. 



226 History of the World. [a.u. 862-983 

SECTION II. The Norman Invasions. 

6. The Normans. — The Normans were pirates inhabiting 
the coasts of Scandinavia — that is, Denmark, Sweden, and 
Norway ; a ferocious and enterprising people, who made war 
and freebooting the chief business of life. They set out in 
their barks to seek booty or settle in new homes among 
richer and more civilized peoples. Rurik, one of their 
chiefs, called in to aid the inhabitants of Novgorod, made 
himself master of the place (862). He is regarded as the 
real founder of the Russian monarchy. His son Igor ex- 
tended his dominion from the Baltic to the North Sea. 

7. Vladimir the Great. — The Russians, under Vladimir 
the Great, Igor's grandson, threatened Constantinople. To 
save -the city Anna, sister of the emperors Basil and Con- 
stantine, was given him in marriage, on condition that 
he would become a Christian. He destroyed his idols and 
with a great number of his followers received baptism 
(988). Vladimir became a great and humane sovereign. 
His son, Jaroslav (or Yaroslaf) I., drew up a code of wise 
laws called "Russian Truths." The Russians were thence- 
forth divided into three classes : the boyards or nobles, 
the commoners, and the serfs. Jaroslav's reign was a 
happy and prosperous one, and he placed, by marriage, 
three daughters on the thrones of France, Hungary, and 
Norway. 

8. Pushing northwards, the Normans seized the Faroe Isles 
and Iceland, and discovered Greenland, Newfoundland, and, 
according to some, North America. They invaded Ireland 
and made various settlements there, and landed in England 
about 830, just after Egbert, King of Wessex, had extended 
his sway over the whole Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy (827).. 
Egbert, having been reared in the court and camp of 

6. Who were the Normans ? What of Eurik and his son ? 7. What of Vla- 
dimir the Great 1 What were the "Eussian Truths"? 8. Tell of the Norman 
discoveries. Did they reach England and Ireland ? 



a.d. 878-940] The Middle A ges. 227 

Charlemagne, kept the invaders back, but after his death 
they made constant inroads, and finally effected a settle- 
ment in the north in the three kingdoms of the Angles. 

9. The Northmen in England. — Alfred the Great, Egbert's 
grandson, ascended the throne at the age of twenty-two. 
His kingdom was ransacked by the Northmen, then called 
Danes, as well as torn by dissensions. He succeeded, 
however, in gradually bringing his forces together, expel- 
ling the Danes, and restoring order (878). He erected 
fortresses and built the first English fleet to protect the 
coasts. He framed a wise system of laws, encouraged 
learning and piety, and maintained justice. He is credited 
with founding the University of Oxford. 

10. Alfred was succeeded by his son, Edward I., sur- 
named the Elder — an able prince, who drove the Danes 
still further back (900-924). His son Athelstan (924- 
940) completed the conquest of the Danish territory by 
defeating Anlaf at Brunanburgh. The "Welsh and Scots, 
allies of Anlaf, submitted to Athelstan, who succeeded in 
uniting all the kingdoms of the Heptarchy under his 
sway. The three daughters of this powerful monarch 
wedded Otho I., Charles the Simple, and Hugh the 
Great, Duke of France. The reign of his nephew Edgar 
was equally glorious, and guided by the zeal and wisdom 
of St. Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, who effected 
great reforms among the clergy. Their discipline and 
habits had become relaxed under the constant distur- 
bances of the times. 

11. Edgar's son, Ethelred II., had none of the vigor of 
his brothers. Instead of beating he attempted to buy off 
the Danes. For this purpose a tax called danegelt was 
levied on the English and became a great burden. Ethel- 

9. Who expelled the Danes from England 1 What other work did Alfred do ? 
10. What followed on Alfred's death? What of Athelstan's daughters 1 Describe 
the reign of Edgar. 11. What was Ethelred's policy ? 



228 History of the World. [a.d. 1003-1042 

red was treacherous as well as cowardly, and on St. Brice's 
day (November 13, 1002) ordered a massacre of the Danes 
through all the kingdom. Not even the sister of Sweyn, 
King of Denmark, was spared, Christian though she was. 

12. Conquest of England by Sweyn and Canute. — Sweyn, 
at the head of a large army, landed in England and ravaged 
the country. Ethelred was compelled to fly to Normandy 
(1013). After Sweyn's departure Ethelred was recalled, and 
at his death (1016) was succeeded by his eldest son, Edmund 
Ironside. Sweyn had achieved the conquest of the country, 
and left it as part of his inheritance to Canute, his son and 
successor. Edmund compelled Canute to cede half the Hep- 
tarchy ; but his death left the whole to Canute (1017). 

13. Canute the Great, King of England (1017-1035).— 
Canute, after ascending the English throne, was convert- 
ed to the Christian faith, and became one of the greatest 
and wisest rulers that England had yet known. To end 
discord he married Emma, the widow of Edmund. He 
restored the ancient laws and suppressed the privileges of 
the Danes. He favored learning and religion, and was 
beloved by the people. At one time he united in his own 
person the crowns of England, Denmark, Sweden, and Nor- 
way. He made a pilgrimage to Eome, and addressed a fa- 
mous letter to his people from the shrine of the apostles. 
He established the payment of Peter's pence in his domin- 
ions — a tax of a farthing on every hearth for the benefit of 
the Holy See. His two sons, Harold (1035-1040) and Har- 
dicanute (1038-1042), succeeded, but were unfit to reign. 
The Danes returned, and Edward, son of Ethelred, was 
recalled from his exile in Normandy. 

14. The Hormans in the Carlovingian Empire. — In the 
beginning of the ninth century the Normans began to 

12. Who now invaded England 1 What followed on Sweyn's departure ? 13. 
What of Canute 1 Whom did he many ? What was his policy ? What memor- 
able pilgrimage did he make ? What followed on his death ? 



a. d. 891-911] The Middle Ages. 229 

descend on the Carlovingian coasts. Their favorite posts 
were islands in the mouths of rivers, whence they could 
sail inwards for booty or escape to sea if necessary. The 
weakness of Louis le Debonnaire and his sons exposed 
France to their depredations. They suffered a great de- 
feat from King Arnulf at Louvain (891). In the west of 
France their stay was more prolonged and calamitous. 
They sacked some of the principal cities, and Eagnar 
Lodbrog, one of their chiefs, ascended the Seine to Paris 
(845), He sacked the city before the eyes of Charles the 
Bald, who bought the barbarian off. 

15. Eavage succeeded to ravage, until all France groaned 
under the Normans. They finally settled in the country. 
Hasting, the most redoubtable of their chiefs, was bap- 
tized, and was given the county of Chartres by Charles 
the Bald. He then closed the Loire against his country- 
men. After Eudes' brave defence of Paris (886) the pi- 
rates no longer dared ascend the Seine so far. Eollo, 
however, one of their chiefs, seized Rouen and held it. 
Charles won him over at St. Clair-sur-Epte (911) by giv- 
ing him his daughter, Gisela, in marriage, with part of 
Neustria for dower, on condition that he would pay ho- 
mage and be baptized with his followers. Eollo consented, 
and was baptized under the name of Eobert. The Nor- 
mans soon changed their ways, and, under wise laws, be- 
came as strong Christians as they had been fierce pagans. 
Normandy soon grew to be the best-ordered and most pros- 
perous province in France. 

16. Conquests of the French Normans.— Forty Norman 
pilgrims, returning from the Holy Land, happened to be 
in Salerno when the Saracens came to levy the annual 
tax on its inhabitants. Indignant at such a thing, they 

14. Tell of the Norman invasion of France. 15. What course did they adopt ? 
What of Hasting 1 What of Eollo '( How were the French Normans changed 
into Christians 1 



230 History of the World. [a.d. 1016-1059 

fell on the Saracens and slew them (1016). This incident 
and the richness of the place drew many Normans to the 
south of Italy. The Duke of Salerno bestowed the coun- 
ty of Aversa on one of their chiefs (1030). This was a fur- 
ther inducement to the Normans to enter in and take 
possession, as was their custom. 

17. Tancred of Hauteville, reduced in fortunes and hav- 
ing twelve sons, sent three of them to southern Italy. 
One, called William the Iron Arm, entered the Greek ser- 
vice and conquered the Saracens in Sicily. As pay was 
not forthcoming, William, at the head of twelve hundred 
Normans, attacked an army of sixty thousand men and 
defeated them, near Canne (1042). He then conquered 
Apulia, and, dying soon after, left his conquests to his 
hardy brothers, among them the famous Eobert Guiscard. 

18. Pope Leo IX., having entered into alliance with the 
emperors of Germany and the East, advanced to Civitella 
(1053) against the Normans. Hi» troops were defeated and 
he fell into the enemy's hands. They fell at his feet, 
begged his blessing, and did him homage for all the fiefs 
conquered or to be conquered in southern Italy. The 
pope acquiesced, and from captive was changed into suze- 
rain of the Normans. Eobert Guiscard, one of the most 
famous captains of his time, expelled the Greeks from 
Calabria, and was given the title of Duke of Apulia and 
Calabria (1059) by Pope Nicholas II., as also Duke of 
Sicily, though the island was still held by the Saracens. 
Thither he sent his younger brother, Eoger, while he con- 
tinued his conquests in southern Italy. He pursued the 
flying Greeks to the Ionian Islands and Albania. 

19. Eobert Guiscard had thrice defeated the Emperor 
Alexis Comnenus when the pope, St. Gregory VII., ap- 

16. What took the Normans to Italy ? 17. Tell of Tancred's sons. 18. What 
of Pope Leo and the Normans ? Who was Eobert Guiscard ? Tell of his eon- 
quests. 



a.d. 108^1189] The Middle A ges. 231 

pealed to him for aid against Henry IV. of Germany, who 
was besieging the Sovereign Pontiff in Eome (1084). Ro- 
bert flew to the assistance of his suzerain and of the Holy 
See, relieved the pope, and, conducting him to Salerno, 
returned to pursue the Greeks, but died in Cephalonia 
(1085). To his youngest son, Robert Bursa, fell most of 
the inheritance. The eldest, Bohemond, prince of Taren- 
tum, had little but his sword, with which he carved a glo- 
rious fortune for himself in the East. The direct line of 
Robert Guiscard ended with William, son and successor of 
Roger (1127). 

20. Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (1139).— With only 
three hundred knights Roger, the twelfth son of Tancred, 
took Messina, an important city in Sicily. After an heroic 
struggle of thirty years he drove out the Saracens and 
made himself master of the whole island (1060-1091), tak- 
ing the title of "grand count." His son, Roger II., suc- 
ceeded, and on the death of his cousin William inherited 
the latter's estates in southern Italy. Pope Innocent II. 
confirmed him in possession, granting him the title of 
" King of the Two Sicilies," on condition of his acknow- 
ledging the suzerainty of the Holy See (1139). To his 
new kingdom he added Malta, Tunis, Tripoli, and several 
cities of Greece. He ruled the Mediterranean and menaced 
Constantinople. His son and grandson succeeded him, but 
their reigns were less . glorious ; and after the death of 
the latter the Emperor Henry VI. of Germany, by virtue 
of his marriage with Constance, the daughter of Roger, 
transferred the kingdom of the Two Sicilies to the German 
crown (1189). Thus by the close of the twelfth century 
the French Normans had defended the independence of 
the Holy See against the Germans, had rid southern Italy 

19. What of Robert Guiscard and Henry IV. ? To whom did Robert leave his 
inheritance ? 20. Who achieved the conquest of Sicily ? What title was be- 
stowed on Roger II. ? Tell of Roger's conquests. What followed on his death ? 



232 History of the World. [ A .d. 1042-1066 

of the Greeks, and had driven back the Mussulmans to 
Africa. 

21. Edward the Confessor (1042-1066); Harold; and 
William, Duke of Kormandy. — Edward, son of Ethelred 
II., called from Normandy to ascend the English throne, 
had learned to love Norman ways and civilization. This 
led him to invite the Normans to his court and favor 
them, which gave umbrage to his own nobles and people. 
He was a good and just king, nevertheless, full of piety 
and zeal for his people's good. He lessened their taxes 
and abolished the danegelt. He renewed good laws which 
had become extinct. The only war in which he engaged 
was against MacBeth, the murderer of King Duncan of 
Scotland and usurper of his throne. MacBeth was slain, 
and Malcolm, Duncan's son, placed on the throne. 

22. Jealousy of Norman influence and the ambition of 
powerful nobles, at whose head was Godwin, Earl of Kent, 
father-in-law of Edward, led to a revolt, which was quelled 
and Godwin banished. Returning soon, the earl drove out 
all foreigners. On the death of Godwin his son Harold, a 
young man of great military skill and capacity, assumed 
the lead of the family and of the native party. On the 
death of Edward he, with the consent of the people, seized 
on the throne in spite of an understanding between Ed- 
ward and William, Duke of Normandy, the illegitimate 
son of Robert the Devil, that William was to succeed 
(January, 1066). 

23. Horman Conquest of England (1066). — William, an 
able and ambitious prince, resolved on winning by force of 
arms the throne which he claimed. While holding Harold 
a prisoner at his court he had exacted a promise from him 
to aid him in ascending the English throne. Proclaiming 

2L Whom did Edward the Confessor favor? What was Edward's character 
and policy? 22. Tell of Godwin. What course did Harold take 1 23. Who op- 
posed Harold's claim ? On what grounds ? 



a.d. 1068-1087] The Middle Ages. 233 

the perjury of Harold, and by his representations winning 
the approval of Pope Alexander II. for his claims, he as- 
sembled an immense army and set sail for England. 

24. Harold meanwhile was in the north fighting against 
his brother Tostig, who with Harold Hardrada, King of 
Norway, had invaded the country. Defeating and slaying 
both, he heard on the victorious battle-field of William's 
arrival on the Sussex coast. Hastening southwards by 
forced marches, he came in sight of the new invader near 
Hastings, where he took up a strong position on a hill at 
Senlac, his men fighting on foot around him. All day the 
battle raged for the possession of England, the Saxons op- 
posing an invincible front to the Norman horsemen and 
bowmen. William at last drew them from their position by 
a feigned flight, and the Saxon cause was lost. As evening- 
fell an arrow pierced Harold's eye and the day was over. 
His two brothers and most of his army fell with him. 
William occupied Dover and pushed on at once to Lon- 
don, where he was crowned at Westminster, December 25, 
1066. 

25. William the Conqueror (1066-1087).— To awe the 
citizens of London, the capital, William built a strong fort- 
ress known as the Tower. There were various revolts and 
conspiracies during the reign, but all were put down with 
a stern hand. Apart from the blood shed in acquiring 
and maintaining the throne William proved a wise and 
able sovereign. He was harsh, however, to the natives. 
He parcelled out the kingdom in estates among his fol- 
lowers, retaining for himself the chief proprietorship of 
six hundred baronies, comprising sixty-two thousand five 
hundred knights' fees of one hundred and twenty acres 
each. He had drawn np a registry of all the estates in 

24. How was Harold employed ? Describe the battle of Hastings. The result 
of the battle 1 When and where was William crowned ? 25. How did William 
act ? How did he divide the kingdom 1 



234 History of the World. [a.d. 888 

England, called the Land Boole, but by the Saxon natives 
the Book of Doom, or Doomsday. 

26. The feudal system gave him almost absolute autho- 
rity. He revived the ancient taxes, even the danegelt, to 
fill the royal coffers. To stay conspiracy he ordered the 
curfew (cover-fire) bell to be rung throughout the kingdom 
at eight in the evening, when all lights had to be extin- 
guished. The Norman tongue, a bastard mingling of 
Trench and Latin, was made the language of the courts. 
To the clergy William was liberal. Lanfranc was made 
Archbishop of Canterbury, and proved a wise reformer. 



CHAPTEK III. 
GERMANY AND ITALY. 

From the dismemberment of tlie Carlovingian Empire till the Investitures 
(888-1073) Germany and Italy are distinct. Later on Germany subjects Italy. 

SECTION I. Tlie Germanic Kingdom and the Northern Races (888-962). 

1. Arnulf and Louis IV. — Arnulf, nephew of Charles 
the Suabian, was welcomed as king of the Eastern 
Franks by all the Germans. Eudes of France, Eudolph 
and Louis of the two Burgundies, and Berenger of north- 
ern Italy did him homage. In return he defeated near 
Louvain a force of eighty thousand Northmen headed 
by Sigefried. In the east he contended against the 
Wends and the Bohemians and Moravians. He formed 
a league with the Magyars against Zwentibald, Duke of 
Moravia. Zwentibald was vanquished, but the alliance 
proved unfortunate for Arnulf 's successors. Arnulf had 
himself crowned in Italy as Emperor of the West ; but 

What was the Doomsday Book ? 26. What effect had the Norman invasion on 
England? How did William treat the clergy ? 1. What of Arnulf ? Tell of his 
wars. As what was he crowned ? 



a.d. 888-918] The Middle Ages. 235 

as soon as lie recrossed the Alps his authority was dis- 
owned by the Italians. He died soon after (899). His 
son, Louis IV., then seven years old, was acknowledged 
king by the German nobles and by the two Lorraines. 
During his minority the great lords strengthened their 
power in the provinces. At the same period Arpad, Khan 
of the Hungarians, after hanging the last of Lhe Moravian 
princes, invaded Germany, slew the dukes of Bavaria and 
Thuringia, and then proceeded to overrun western Eu- 
rope. Louis IV. died during his minority (911). 

2. Elective Kings; Conrad I. (911-918).— With Louis 
perished the Germanic branch of the Carlovingians. The 
Lorraines fell to the king of France, Charles the Simple. 
The Germans proceeded to elect their king, and chose 
Conrad, Duke of Franconia. At once ensued a struggle 
between the king and the great vassals, one of whom, 
Henry of Saxony, defeated the royal army, while the other, 
Arnulf of Bavaria, called in the Hungarians. Conrad fell 
mortally wounded fighting against the Bavarians. Call- 
ing his brother Eberhard, he bade him convey the royal 
insignia to Henry of Saxony, his worst enemy. Henry, on 
receiving the commission, was at the chase, whence his 
name of the "Fowler." Proclaimed and solemnly conse- 
crated king at Fritzlar, he became the founder of the 
Saxon line (918). 

3. The Saxon Line ; Henry the Fowler (918-S86). — Henry 
at once showed that he was resolved to be master. Suabia 
and Bavaria and the two Lorraines soon submitted to his 
sway. He routed the Danes and strengthened his frontiers 
on every side. He compelled Wenceslaus, Duke of the 
Czechs of Bohemia, to pay him tribute. Germany had 
been under tribute to the Hungarians for seven years. 

What followed on the death of Arnulf? What of ArpacL? 2. Whom did tho 
Germans choose as king ? What followed the choice ? 3. What course did 
Henry pursue 1 Whom did he subdue ? 



236 History of tee World. [ a .d. 918-962 

Henry refused to pay tribute longer. Two Hungarian ar- 
mies invaded the kingdom, bat they were beaten at Merse- 
burg with a loss of thirty-six thousand men (933). Strength- 
ening his kingdom in all its parts, Henry left it to his son 
Otlio by securing the latter's election. 

4. Otho I. (936). — Otho, like his father, was determined to 
rule in all his kingdom and to have his rule respected by 
his neighbors. He was eminently successful. He reduced 
Boleslaus the Cruel of Bohemia, the murderer of St. Wen- 
ceslaus, to fealty, and exacted the same of Harold) King 
of Denmark. He gave his daughters in marriage to King 
Louis of France and the Duke of France, thus making 
himself arbiter of the kingdom. His reign was a series 
of exhausting wars, in all of which he was triumphant. 
He made the Slavic tribes tributary up to the Oder. For 
arranging the dispute between Hugh the Great and King 
Louis he received all of Lorraine that remained in French 
hands. He married Adelaide, widow of Lothaire of Italy, 
whose throne had been usurped by Berenger II. Defeat- 
ing Berenger, he was himself crowned King of Italy by 
the Archbishop of Mentz, and Emperor of the West by 
Pope John XII. (February 2, 962). Quarrelling with the 
pope later on, Otho had Leo VIII. set up in John's place. 
This led to great scandal and trouble. Otho also invaded 
Lower Italy, defeated the Greeks, and took Apulia and 
Calabria. 

SECTION II. Italy and the Western Empire (888-962). 

5. After Charles of Suabia was deposed Guy of Spo- 
leto and Berenger of Friuli, descendants of Charlemagne, 
claimed the title of emperor and king of Italy. Berenger 
was defeated and his rival crowned emperor by Pope Ste- 

What happened at Merseburg ? 4. Tell of Otho's achievements. How did 
French Lorraine come to him 1 ? What titles did he win 1 ? What resulted from 
his quarrel with the pope ? 



a.d. 888-924] The Middle Ages. 237 

plien VI. (891). He associated with him his son Lam- 
bert, whom, before his death, he had crowned by Pope 
Eormosus (894). Three years later, the throne being va- 
cant, Berenger again claimed it, and received at Pavia 
the crown of Italy. His title was disputed by Louis, 
King of Cis-Juran Burgundy, a grandson on the mother's 
side of the Emperor Louis II. The nobles hailed Louis 
as king, and he was crowned Emperor of the West by 
Pope Benedict IV. in 900. But he was taken prisoner by 
Berenger and his eyes were put out (905). He survived 
twenty years. Berenger was engaged in constant strug- 
gles with the Hungarians, Saracens, and the Italian 
nobles. He was crowned emperor by Pope John X. 
(915), and, advancing at the head of the Italians to the 
Garigliano, lie routed the Saracens, who had held that 
post for thirty years. His conquests and reign were cut 
short by a conspiracy of his nobles, who assassinated him 
on Christmas night (924). 

6. Italian Dissensions. — From the time of the fall of the 
Eoman Empire Italy was made the prey of every new in- 
vader. The powerful nobles who had fastened on the soil 
cared for no rule but their own. This led to constant 
conflict. Previous to the tenth century the country was 
split up among a few great dukedoms and marquisates. 
The Greeks claimed Bari, Tarentum, and the southern 
coasts ; the Saracens had conquered some parts of the 
western coast and all Sicily. Pavia, Milan, Pisa, and a 
few other cities acknowledged the king of Italy. Borne 
and the cities belonging to the patrimony of St. Peter 
paid their first allegiance to the pope, after to the em- 
peror crowned by him ; but the pope's possessions were 
often invaded, now by one, now by another. 

5. What happened on the deposition of Charles of Suabia ? Describe the 
struggle for the crown. Describe the reign of Berenger. 6. Describe the dis- 
sensions and divisions in Italy. 



238 History of the World. [a.d. 945-955 

7. The nobles had appealed to Eudolph II., King of 
Trans-Juran Burgundy, to rid them of the Emperor Beren- 
ger. After electing him king they repented, and two years 
later chose Hugh, his administrator. Changing again, 
they recalled Rudolph, but for twenty years Hugh main- 
tained an iron rule over them. Then Berenger, Marquis 
of Ivrea, son of the Emperor Berenger's daughter, gained 
such a following that Hugh consented to abdicate on con- 
dition of their placing his young son, Lothaire, on the 
throne. Berenger was appointed tutor, and Lothaire re- 
ceived the iron crown (945), with Adelaide, daughter of 
Rudolph II., as consort. Five years later Lothaire died, 
as was suspected, of poison. Berenger grasped the throne, 
cruelly imprisoned the queen, whose virtues and misfor- 
tunes roused such sympathy among the Italians that Otho 
the Great was called in to take up her cause (954). 

SECTION III. The German Emperors of the West (962). 

8. Otho the Great. — Otho aimed at playing the role of 
Charlemagne. Entering Rome, he espoused Adelaide, and 
the royal pair were crowned at Pavia. Dissensions broke 
out in Otho's family. Leaving the title of king of Italy 
to Berenger II. and his son Adalbert, Otho hastened back 
to Germany to quell the revolt of his son Ludolph, Con- 
rad, his son-in-law, and Henry, his brother. This he 
effected in two years. He diminished the power of the 
great vassals, increased the number of the lesser ones, and 
organized a powerful army. Marching against the Hunga- 
rians, who had aided the revolt, he broke their power at 
Lech, near Augsburg (August 10, 955). He then estab- 
lished the eastern marquisate, now Austria, driving the 
Hungarians beyond its borders. His northern frontier he 

7. To whom did the Italian nobles appeal ? What was the result? Why was 
Otho called in ? 8. What was Otho's ambition ? How did he act ? Tell of his 
campaigns. 



a.d. 955-962] The Middle A ges. 239 

secured by a victory over the Slavs of the Elbe. He sent an 
embassy to the Caliph Abd-er-Rahman III. to soften the lot 
of the Spanish Christians under the Ommiades of Cordova. 

9. Otho crowned Emperor of the Romans. — On the death 
of Pope Agape tus II., Octavian, son and successor of Count 
Alberic of Tusculum, Roman patrician and master of the 
city, had himself elected pope under the title of John 
XII. He was the first pope to change his name on ac- 
cession, and all his successors have followed this example. 
His administration proved a wise and firm one. He wish- 
ed to extend its benefits beyond the city limits, but was 
met by the opposition of Berenger II., who threatened 
Rome itself. The pope invited Otho to receive the impe- 
rial crown and deliver the city. Again Otho crossed the 
Alps and compelled the submission and deposition of Ber- 
enger and his son Adalbert at Milan. Entering Rome, 
he received the homage of the people, and renounced in 
his own name and in that of his successors all interfer- 
ence with the jurisdiction of the Holy Roman Church. 
He was then crowned emperor (February 2, 962), and the 
Roman Empire, after a vacancy of thirty-eight years, was 
thus again renewed in the West. There it remained, titu- 
larly at least, until the opening of the nineteenth century 
(1806). 

10. Otho had hardly left Rome when the pope broke his 
promise to enter into no alliance with the enemies of the 
emperor. He joined with Berenger. Otho returned and 
the pope fled. The Romans were compelled to take an 
oath to acknowledge no pope save such as should hold 
the see at the will of Otho. A council was held at Rome 
and John summoned to appear. On his refusal he was 
accused of various crimes, condemned, and deposed. The 

9. How did John XII. become Pope ? For what is he remarkable ? Tell of 
his relations with Otho. The result? 10. What followed the pope's rupture 
with Otho? 



240 History of the World. [a.d. 962-988 

proceeding was neither in accordance with, the canon law 
nor valid in any sense. Otho had Leo VIII. elected pope 
and left Borne. 

11. On his departure Pope John returned to his see and 
revenged himself on his opponents. He died soon after, 
as was alleged, in the very commission of a criminal act ; 
but this is generally rejected by impartial historians as an 
invention of his enemies. A new pope, Benedict V., was 
elected in his stead and the emperor's pope rejected. 
Otho returned to Rome, exiled Benedict to Germany, and 
reinstated Leo, who soon after died. Otho made John 
XIII. his successor, but the Romans expelled him, Otho 
having returned to Germany after imprisoning Berenger 
and defeating Adalbert, but his army nearly perished of an 
epidemic on the march. He re-entered Italy at the head 
of a new army to avenge John XIII. and crown his son 
Emperor of the West. On his return to Germany he died 
(973). 

12. Ofiio's Son and Grandson (973-1002).— The reign of 
Otho II. was one of prosperity to Germany, notwithstand- 
ing the troubles caused by Henry of Bavaria and Lothaire, 
King of France. Otho convoked an assembly of the dis- 
contented Italian nobles at Pavia, and caused them all to 
be massacred at a banquet. This treacherous deed roused 
all Italy against him. Urged by Theophania, his wife, a 
Greek princess, who wished all the Greek provinces of Italy 
for her dower, he raised a small army, composed mainly 
of Italians, to seize the Greek principalities and cities of 
the south. After meeting with some success his troops 
were surprised and dispersed by a body of Saracens in the 
service of the Byzantine catapan. The Italians turned 
him into ridicule, and he died in Italy of chagrin or poi- 

11. Who succeeded John XII. ? What action did Otho take ? What followed? 
12. What of Otho II. and the Italian nobles ? What foolish enterprise did he 
undertake ? The result ? 



a.d. 988-1024] The Middle A ges. 241 

son, after securing the election of his soil Otho, not yet 
four years of age (983). 

13. Troubles arose in consequence of the minority, but 
were settled by the empresses Theophania and Adelaide 
and the Archbishop of Mayence. When fifteen Otho was 
crowned at Rome by his kinsman, Gregory V., the first 
German pope. For years there had been a strong opposi- 
tion to the popes in Pome. The emperor came back, took 
the castle of San Angelo, and put Crescentius, the leader 
of the faction which was hostile to all foreigners, to death. 
When Gregory V. died Otho secured the election of the 
learned monk Gerbert, one of his preceptors, who took 
the title of Sylvester II. and was the first French pope. 
The emperor received great aid from the wise advice of 
the pontiff. He conferred the title of king on Boleslaus 
the Brave, Duke of Poland, and on St. Stephen of Hun- 
gary. The emperor's promising career came to an end at 
the early age of twenty-two (1002). 

14. St. Henry Emperor (1002-1024).— At the death of 
Otho III. without heirs, the house of Saxony was repre- 
sented by Henry, Duke of Bavaria, who was elected em- 
peror under the title of Henry II. Hardoin, Marquis of 
Ivrea, laid claim to the crown of Italy. He was defeated 
and his rival crowned by Benedict VIII. (1014), Hardoin 
dying in the following year. Henry then proceeded to 
bring the King of Poland to allegiance, and helped the 
King of Hungary in evangelizing his people, and the pope 
and Normans to rid southern Italy of Saracen pirates. He 
ruled peacefully in his own dominions, favored religion and 
learning, and aided materially in spreading the faith among 
the Slavs, Scandinavians, and Hungarians. 

15. If the tenth century had been dark the eleventh 

13. By whom was Otho III. crowned 1 What was the state of Rome at this 
time ? What action did Otho take ? Who was the first French pope ? 14. Who 
succeeded Otho III. ? Describe Henry's reign. 



242 History of the World. [a.d. 1024-1044 

opened with brighter' promise. On the papal throne sat 
Sylvester II., on the German St. Henry; in Hungary 
reigned St. Stephen, in Poland Boleslaus the Brave ; in 
England and Denmark Canute ruled, in Spain' Sancho the 
Great, in Russia St. Vladimir, and in Prance the pious 
King Robert. Henry died childless in 1024. 

16. The Franconian Family. — The Saxon family ended 
with Henry II. The eight German dukes agreed to elect 
the least powerful of their number as king. This was 
Conrad, Duke of Franconia, a descendant of Otho the 
Great and nephew of Gregory V. He speedily evinced 
his power, reducing his vassals to allegiance. He received 
the imperial crown at Rome from Pope John XIX. He 
checked the great vassals by conferring new privileges on 
their inferiors. On the death of his uncle, Rudolph III., 
he inherited the kingdom of the two Burgundies (1032). 
- 17. To Conrad II. succeeded his son, Henry III., sur- 
named the Black (1029-1056). After quelling disturbances 
in Burgundy, Lorraine, and Hungary he entered Italy to 
restore order in Rome, where Benedict IX., a mere boy, 
had been thrust into the chair of St. Peter by his rela- 
tives, the Counts of Tuscnlum. In 1044 Benedict abdi- 
cated and three claimants arose. Two of these were de- 
clared usurpers and intruders, while the third, Gregory 
VI., for the sake of peace in the Church, resigned his 
office. Henry had the Bishop of Bamberg, Clement II., 
elected, and with his wife, Agnes of Poitiers, was crowned 
by him. After Clement II. the emperor designated Da- 
masus II., St. Leo, and Victor II. The choice in each 
case was good, but the principle of imperial appointment 
to the Papacy was essentially a bad one. 

15. How did the eleventh century open ? 16. Who was the last of the Saxon 
family 1 Who was elected king ? What of his reign ? 17. Who succeeded 
Conrad II. ? What did he do at Eome ? 



a. d. 933-993] Tue Middle Ages. 243 

SECTION IV. Cis-Juran and Trans-Juran Burgundy. 

18. Cis-Juran Burgundy. — The two Burgundies, formed 
out of the wreck of Charlemagne's empire, were separate 
states up to 933, then united for a century and incorpo- 
rated with the German Empire. Cis-Juran Burgundy, 
comprising the valley of the Ehone, had Aries for its cap- 
ital. It had three kings : Boson, a son-in-law of the 
Emperor Louis II. ; his son, the Emperor Louis III., 
whose eyes were put out by Berenger ; and Hugh of Pro- 
vence, a usurper who, to secure Italy, abandoned the Medi- 
terranean coast and the Alps to the Saracens, while he 
ceded the rest of the kingdom to his rival, Eudolph II., 
King of Trans-Juran Burgundy (933). 

19. Trans-Juran Burgundy. — Trans-Juran Burgundy, 
founded in 888 by Rudolph Welf, comprised at first a 
part of Switzerland and of Franche-Comte. After the 
cession of the Cis-Juran the united kingdoms became the 
kingdom of Aries, but never attained to great power. Its 
chief monarch was Conrad the Peaceful (937-993). He 
set the Saracens and Hungarians against each other, and 
with his small army came in to reap the benefits of their 
struggle. The kingdom soon disappeared, and from it 
rose the sovereign counties of Savoy, Provence, Dauphiny, 
ISTeufchatel, together with several ecclesiastical provinces. 



CHAPTER IV. 
SPAIN, THE ABABS, AND THE G&EEKS. 

SECTION I. Struggle between the Arabs and Spanish Christians. 
1. The Saracens in Spain. — Though the Christians main- 
tained an heroic struggle in Spain, the Saracens long held 

18. What of the two Burgundies? What was the capital of Cis-Juran Bur- 
gundy? Name the kings. 19. Who founded Trans-Juran Burgundy? What 
became of the two kingdoms 1 What of the kingdom of Aries ? 



244 History of the Would. [a.d. 861-976 

the supremacy. The latter had many powerful princes, 
who always appeared just when the Christians were 
weakest. On the death of Alfonso II. Abd-er-Eahnian 
II. retook the lost provinces and wrested Barcelona from 
the King of France. Then came Alfonso III., the Great 
(861-911), who crossed the Douro and retook much of what 
had been lost. He was a powerful monarch, as great in 
peace as in war, and erected the famous basilica of St. 
James at Compostella. 

2. Two Great Caliphs. — In 911 the caliphate fell to Abd- 
er-Eahman III. (911-961), the very year that Alfonso re- 
signed the throne to his sons. Abd-er-Eahman defeated 
them in the vale of Jonqnera, crossed the Pyrenees, pil- 
laged Gascony, and besieged the stronghold of Zamora. 
He was stoutly opposed in the new kingdoms of Navarre 
and Leon, the latter founded by the successors of Pelayo. 

3. Conquests in Africa. — Abd-er-Eahman was more suc- 
cessful against his co-religionists in Africa. He conquered 
Morocco and Algeria, and spent the last twenty years of 
his life in peace and in great splendor ; yet he tells that, 
after fifty years of reign, in all his life he could count 
but fourteen days of true happiness. His son, Hakem II. 
(961-976), was a patron of learning and of the arts of 
peace. Seeing his people disregarding the Koran's prohi- 
bition of the use of wine, he had two-thirds of the vines of 
Spain torn up by the roots. 

4. Mohammed Al-Mansur. — With Hakem fell the personal 
power of the caliphs. His successor, Hesham II., or Issam 
(976-1008), an effeminate prince, was sustained by the arm 
of Mohammed, snrnamed Al-Mansur (the Victorious), a 
general who won fifty-six battles in twenty-two years. He 
met his first defeat at Calatanazor against the united 

1. Describe the conflict in Spain. Tell of Alfonso III. 2. Tell of Abd-er- 
Eahman. 3. Describe the reign and conquests of Abd-er Rahman. What of his 
son ? 4. Who was Mohammed Al-Mansur ? 



a.d. 998-1065] The Middle A ges. 245 

armies of the Count of Castile and the kings of Leon 
and Navarre. Al-Mansur starved himself to death rather 
than survive what he thought his dishonor (998). His 
fall -led to the final downfall of the Western caliphate 
(1031). Hesham III., after a series of revolts and dis- 
asters, was deposed. 

5. Sancho the Great. — About this time came great leaders 
to the Christians of Spain in the persons of Sancho the 
Great, King of Navarre (1000-1035) ; Ferdinand the Great, 
first King of Castile (1035-1065), his son ; and the great 
captain known as the Cid. By conquest and alliance San- 
cho united under his family all the Christians of Spain. 
At his death he divided his kingdom among his four 
sons, thus again breaking the unity. Ferdinand, at his 
death, imitated his father in this ; but during his life he 
had greatly increased his kingdom at the expense of the 
petty Mohammedan princes on his borders. His great 
general was Euy Diaz de Bivar, surnamed the Cid, also 
El Campeador, the Champion. For sixty years this model 
hero and Christian defeated all the foes against whom he 
contended, and ended his career by the conquest, from the 
Moors, of Valencia, which was granted him as an ap- 
panage. 

6. Moorish Anarchy. — The caliphate of Cordova, which 
fell with Hesham III., was succeeded by a crowd of jar- 
ring and petty kingdoms. The anarchy extended to Af- 
rica and Asia, and various secret societies rose up, spread- 
ing destruction on every side. 

SECTION II. The Greek Empire. 

7. Greek Anarchy. — Had the Greeks any native stability 
they might now have recovered their Eastern empire ; but 

What followed the defeat of Al Mansur ? 5. What Spanish leaders now 
arose ? Tell of the work of Sancho. Of Ferdinand. Who was the Cid, and 
what did he do ? 6. What followed the fall of the Cordovan Caliphate ? 



246 History of the World. [ a .d. 813-867 

they, like the Moslems, were given up to internal dis- 
sensions. After the deposition of Michael I. (813) the 
heresy of the Iconoclasts was revived under Leo the Ar- 
menian, Michael the Stammerer, and. Theophilus. - The 
latter was defeated and slain by the Mohammedans. His 
widow, Theodora, aided by Ignatius, the patriarch, son 
of Michael I., restored peace to the Church. But the 
woes of the empire broke out anew under her son, Mi- 
chael III., the Drunkard (842-867). He was abetted in 
his wickedness by his uncle Bardas. Theodora was exiled, 
Ignatius deposed and his place filled by Photius, the eu- 
nuch, a learned, and crafty man. He had. himself conse- 
crated by the Bishop of Syracuse, and took possession of 
the patriarchal see of Constantinople on Christmas day 
(857). 

8. The Schism of Photius. — Pope Nicholas I. protested, 
against the intrusion, whereupon Photius attacked, the Eo- 
man Church, charging it with inserting the word filioque 
in the Creed, and various so-called irregularities. A series 
of disturbances ended in the assassination of Bardas and 
Michael by Basil the Macedonian, who restored St. Igna- 
tius, imprisoned Photius, and, by the authority of Pope 
Adrian II., convoked an oecumenical council (869-870) at 
Constantinople. The cunning Photius succeeded in win- 
ning over Basil, and on the death of Ignatius Photius 
was replaced in the see, whence he was again driven by 
Basil's successor, Leo the Philosopher. 

9. The Macedonian Dynasty (887-1057).— Basil I., the 
son of a Macedonian farmer, was the founder of a dynasty 
that filled the throne for two hundred years. He was him- 
self an able prince ; but his son and successor, Leo, was a 
learned man rather than a wise ruler, as was also his grand- 

7. Who revived the Iconoclast heresy ? Who restored peace ? What of 
Michael III. ? Of Photius *? 8. Describe the quarrel of Photius with Rome. 
9. Who founded the Macedonian dynasty? 



a.d. 867-1054] The Middle A ges. 247 

son, Constantine. Their successor, Romanus the Younger, 
a parricide and debauchee, had two celebrated generals, the 
Phocases. iSTicephorus Phocas recaptured the island of 
Crete from the Saracens, and during the minority of Basil 
and Constantine, sons and successors of Eomanus II., he 
defeated the Bulgarians and vanquished the Saracens in 
Asia. He was proclaimed emperor (963) in conjunction 
with the two young princes. He then conquered Cyprus, 
Cilicia, and a part of Syria as far as the Euphrates. His 
general, John Zimisces, took Antiocb, revolted and slew M- 
cephorus, and usurped the throne in his place. He in 
turn governed firmly, beat the Russians in Bulgaria, and 
in a series of Syrian campaigns routed the Arabs. He was 
poisoned by a eunuch (976), and Basil II. reigned alone. 

10. Conquests of Basil II. — Basil put down revolt and sent 
the rebellious generals against the Saracens in Italy, the 
islands of the Mediterranean, and Asia. After a long 
struggle he himself defeated and annihilated the Bulga- 
rians. He possessed himself of the Crimea to check the 
Russian advance, and incorporated all his conquests into 
his empire, which at his death (1025) was greatly enlarged. 

11. Decline; Michael Cerularius. — From the death of Basil 
II. to the accession of the family of Comnenus there passed 
fifty-six years of varied disaster and disgrace. After the 
second deposition of Photius union between the church of 
Rome and of Constantinople was restored. In 1043 Mi- 
chael Cerularius, being raised to the patriarchate of Constan- 
tinople, took up and added to the schism of Photius, and ex- 
communicated the pope, the bishops and churches of the 
West. The pope, St. Leo IX., sent legates to Constantino- 
ple, who were well received by the Emperor Constantine Mo- 
nomachus. Ceruliirius, remaining obstinate, was at last 

Who were the Phoeases ? What of Nicephorus Phocas ? What of Zimisces ? 
10. Describe the reign of Basil II. 11. What followed on the death of Basil? 
Tell of Michael Cerularius and his work. 



248 History of the World. 

excommunicated (July 16, 1054), and the legates departed. 
From that day forth the patriarchal church of Constan- 
tinople remained separate from that of Rome. 



CHAPTER V. 
THE CHTJECH AND FEUDALISM. 

SECTION I. The Catholic Hierarchy in and about the Tenth Century. 

1. Dangers to the Pontificate. — Up to the end of the 

tenth century the popes remained in the position created 
for them by the establishment of the temporal power. 
They were independent princes at Rome, where they 
crowned the emperors, who in turn professed to protect 
them. Nevertheless they suffered from the turbulence of 
the times, and often from the violence of Catholic prin- 
ces and nobles. After the pontificate of Formosus (896) 
a long series of troubles set in. The powerful families in 
and about Rome were desirous of placing their sons on 
the apostolic throne. Feudalism encroached on the free 
election to the Papacy, and later on the intervention of 
the German emperors threatened to convert the See of 
Peter into an appanage of the German crown. Notwith- 
standing all these difficulties and dangers there were dur- 
ing this period many saintly popes. 

2. Clerical Abuses. — Troubles and scandals arose among 
the higher clergy in the various nations, who united to 
their ecclesiastical character that of lay nobles owning 
temporalities, for which they owed homage to the princes 
or great fiefs. Hence the high ecclesiastical appointments 
became very desirous positions for the younger sons of 

1. What dangers threatened the Roman pontificate? How did feudalism 
affect the Papacy? What was the ambition of Germany? 2. How did the 
danger spread to the clergy ? 



a. d. 999-1003] The Middle Ages. 249 

noble' houses, many of whom, were priests in little more 
than name. The inferior clergy, as a consequence, dete- 
riorated when those set over them gave such ill example. 
Nevertheless Europe through all could boast of many 
learned and pious clerics, bishops, and saints, who Avere 
models of zeal and holy living and strove to stem the tide 
of corruption and abuse that had set in on the Church. 

3. Pope Sylvester II. — So evil were the times that the 
year 1000 was looked to with dread by multitudes as the 
year of final judgment. General consternation prevailed, 
which even the calmness and wisdom of Pope Sylvester 
II. (999-1003) could not wholly stay. He it was who in- 
troduced the use of Arabic figures, which he had learned 
from the Moors in Spain ; and he was the first fired to 
the idea of the Crusades at the cruel treatment of Chris- 
tian pilgrims by the Fatimite caliph, Hakem. A fleet of 
Genoese and Pisans was raised at his summons, but they 
perished miserably on the Syrian coast. 

SECTION II. Conversion of the Scandinavians ; St. Anscarius. 

4. Conversion of the Danes. — While wars and troubles 
were going on all over Christendom the peaceful and heroic 
work of Christian missionaries never ceased. They did 
not wait for the barbarians to come in contact with the 
converted people, but went amongst them to preach the 
Gospel, which in many instances they watered with their 
blood. Willibrord had, as has been seen, purchased thirty 
Danish captive children, whom he trained as missionaries to 
their pagan countrymen. A hundred years later Harold 
the Dane, with his retinue, was baptized at Mayence in 
presence of Louis le Debonnaire. Departing, he took with 
him the monk Anscarius of Corbie (825-865), who spent 

3. What superstition arose about the year 1000 1 Who originated the Cru- 
sades 1 What became of the expedition 1 4. Tell of the missionaiy labors at 
this time. Who converted the Danes 1 



250 History of the World. [ A .d. 825-1001 

forty years among the Danes and crowned his labors with 
the sacrifice of his life. Harold was driven out and the 
country closed to the Gospel. 

5. St. Anscarius. — Anscarius joined a French embassy to 
the Swedes, converted many, and built several churches. 
He was appointed to the newly erected archiepiscopal see 
of Hamburg and endowed with legatine powers over Den- 
mark, Sweden, and Norway. Eric of Jutland, who came 
to destroy his see, granted instead leave to build churches 
and preach in his own dominion. Anscarius continued to 
send priests in all directions till his death in 865. 

6. Sweyn and Canute. — His successors in the see of Ham- 
burg were equally zealous ; but the princes remained pagan 
and at times persecuted the missionaries. The victories of 
the emperors over G-orm and Harold Blaatand first secured 
general liberty to preach. Harold was baptized (972) and 
favored Christianity, but was dethroned by Sweyn, his 
pagan son, who became king of Denmark, Norway^ and 
conqueror of England. But his son and heir, Canute 
(1014-1035), became a great Christian prince, and his suc- 
cessors, especially Sweyn II., defended Christianity against 
the votaries of Odin. Under St. Canute IV. (1080-1086) 
Christianity flourished in nearly all Denmark. 

7. Conversion of Sweden. — In Sweden St. Anscarius first 
obtained leave to preach in the temple of Upsal, the sanc- 
tuary of the worship of Odin ; but progress was slow. 
Olaf, baptized in 1001, was the first Christian king of 
Sweden. Under and after him churches multiplied, espe- 
cially under Sverker and St. Eric IX. Scara was the first 
episcopal see, and Upsal finally became the metropolitan. 

8. Conversion of Norway. — Norway, from the roving 
character of its daring pirates, early learned something of 

5. Describe the work of St. Anscarius. 6. How did Christianity progress in 
Denmark? What of Harold, Sweyn, and Canute? 7. How and under whom 
was Sweden converted ? 



a.d. 994-1003] The Middle Ages. 251 

Christianity. The conversion of their great leader, Kollo, 
in France, served as an example to the other chieftains. 
National opposition softened under Olaf I. (994), and ceased 
wholly under St. Olaf II. (1033), who, aided by Anglo- 
Saxon and German missionaries, founded the primatial 
basilica of Drontheim and the cathedrals of Bergen, Ham- 
mer, and Stavanger. In the year 1000 Iceland received 
the faith by vote in popular assembly, and the Icelanders 
proceeded to convert Greenland, which they had discov- 
ered. Thus all the Scandinavians received the true faith. 

SECTION III. Conversion of tlie Slavs. 

9. The Slavs. — The Slavs believed in spirits, good and 
bad, with a vague notion of a supreme being and hope in 
a future life. They materialized their spirits, and had a 
powerful priesthood under a supreme pontiff at Novgorod, 
who offered human sacrifices and gained a great ascendency 
over the people. The Slavs established by Heraclius, or 
Constantine Pogonatus, in the two Illyrias, while conform- 
ing outwardly to the Christian faith, secretly adhered to 
their own. The same practice was observed by those scat- 
tered along the borders of the Carlovingian Empire, who, 
on the decline of the Frankish power, returned to their 
native gods. 

10. Apostolate of Methodius and Constantine. — The first 
great missionaries of the Slavs were the brothers Metho- 
dius and Constantine, born in Thessalonica in the ninth 
century. Constantine was sent by the patriarch Ignatius 
to Kherson, where he converted many. Methodius was 
called by King Bogoris to preach to the Bulgarians of 
the lower Danube. He converted the king, who was bap- 
tized in the name of Michael. The nation followed, and 

8. By and under -whom -was Norway converted? Iceland? Greenland? 
9. What was the religion of the Slavs? 10. Who were the chief missionaries to 
the Slavs ? Descrihe the work of Methodius and Constantine. 



252 History of the World. [ A .d. 863-999 

Constantine was called to his brother's aid. Constantine, a 
learned linguist, invented the Slavonian alphabet and a cur- 
rent hand, to which he arranged a liturgy. He translat- 
ed most of the Bible into this tongue, and by this means 
gained over to Christianity not only the southern Bulga- 
rians but all the Slavonic nations. King Michael enter- 
ed a monastery, but continued to watch over his people. 
But the Bulgarians, being incorporated with the Eastern 
empire in 1019, followed it into schism. 

11. Conversion of the Moravians. — At the close of the 
ninth century the Moravians were the most powerful of 
the Slavs. They asked missionaries from Constantinople, 
and the brothers Cyril and Methodius were sent to them 
by Pope Nicholas I. (863). After six years' labor all the 
Moravians were converted. Cyril died soon after (868), and 
Methodius was consecrated Archbishop of Pannonia. For 
twenty years he labored among them, using the Slavonian 
liturgy, sanctioned by the Holy See, and completing his 
brother's translation of the Scriptures into that tongue. 
"While holding the central Slavs he confirmed their south- 
ern brethren in the faith. He labored with the Czechs 
of Bohemia, whose duke, Borziwoi, he baptized (890). 
Borziwoi and his wife, St. Ludmilla, strove zealously for 
the conversion of their subjects ; but after the duke's 
death Ludmilla and her grandson, St. "Wenceslaus, were 
slain under a pagan reaction, which was only overcome 
by the triumph of the faith under Boleslaus the Good 
(967-999). 

12. Conversion of the Poles.— The Poles, a branch of 
the Slavs, received Christianity under Duke Micislaus, 
who, at the entreaty of his wife, Dombrowska of Bohe- 
mia, became a Christian (966). Thereupon the Poles de- 

What was Constantino's special work? Whom did the Bulgarians follow? 
11. Who converted the Moravians ? Describe the work of Methodius. Under 
whom did the faith triumph ? 12. What of the Poles 1 



a.d. 992-1038] The Middle Ages. 253 

stroyed their idols and cast them into the Vistula. St. 
Adalbert, of Prague, moved them greatly, and his barba- 
rous death at the hands of the Prussians moved them 
still more. They went in crowds to visit his tomb and 
crave baptism. Boleslaus the Brave (992-1025), son of 
Micislaus, helped to complete the conversion of his coun- 
trymen. 

13. Otho the Great had founded six bishoprics among 
the Slavs of the Elbe, but still they were slow to accept 
Christianity, even though urged by their pious prince, 
Gottschalk. The latter being killed in a fanatic revolt, 
the pagan priests seized the bishop, John of Mecklen- 
burg, and immolated him in their temple. The conver- 
sion of the Eussians- under Vladimir has been seen. 

14. Conversion of the Hungarians. — When the Hunga- 
rians saw their khan, Geysa, led to baptism by his wife, 
Saralta (996), all asked to be baptized. Nevertheless they 
continued to sacrifice to their gods until Vaic, baptized 
Stephen, succeeded his father (997-1038). This brave and 
just prince labored zealously for the faith, and, by mar- 
rying the sister of St. Henry, entered into close alliance 
with Catholic Germany, whose civilization he introduced 
into his kingdom. He founded the archbishopric of Gran 
(Strigonium), ten bishoprics, and four abbeys in Hun- 
gary, besides hospices for his subjects at Eavenna, Eome, 
Constantinople, and Jerusalem. 

15. Thus the three Scandinavian kingdoms, the four 
great Slavonian peoples, and the two principal Scythian 
nations were gathered to the Church and gave great fruits 
of holiness, while the blessing brought civilization to their 
peoples. In the north of Europe were still left some pa- 
gans, and in the south the Mohammedans. 



What event chiefly moved the Poles to Christianity 1 ? 13. What of the Slavs 
of the Elbe 1 14. How came the Hungarians to be converted ? Tell of the work 
of King Stephen. 15. What pagans were now left ? 



FOURTH EPOCH {1073-1270), 

FROM THE ACCESSION OF ST. GREGOEY VII. TO THE DEATH OF ST. 
LOUIS— 197 YEARS. 

Dxjeing this period the Sovereign Pontiffs are freed from the encroach- 
ments of feudalism and imperial power, the Crusades are undertaken, and 
Catholic civilization shows itself in masterpieces of Christian art. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE POPES AND THE EMPIRE (1073-1250). 
SECTION I. Investitures. 

1. The Church during the Tenth Century. — As has been 
seen, the state of the clergy during the tenth century was 
at a very low grade. Church benefices were for sale, and 
corruption of every kind found its way into the whole 
ecclesiastical body. A grave source of disorder was the 
power of investiture acquired by the monarchs. They in- 
vested archbishops, bishops, and abbots with the insignia 
of their office, as in the case of purely civic dignitaries. 
The marks of spiritual office conferring the charge over 
souls were bestowed by monarchs in great measure on 
their creatures, for the benefices attached were often 
sources of vast wealth and revenue. The natural cor- 
ruption that ensued spread among all ranks, ecclesiastical 
and lay. 

2. The Papacy itself was, owing to its position, sub- 
ject to the caprices now of Italian princes, now of German 

What does the fourth epoch embrace 1 1. Describe the state of the clergy during 
the tenth century. What were the chief sources of disorder ? 2. To what was 
the Papacy exposed 1 How came the power of veto ? 

254 



a.d. 1049-1059] The Middle A ges. 255 

emperors. At all events it was never wholly free, bnt had 
to find a protector somewhere. Hence was introduced the 
power of confirming or vetoing a pontifical election. The 
pope thus was in danger of becoming a mere vassal of a 
temporal prince. 

3. Hildebrand (1049-1073).— At the abdication of Gre- 
gory VI. in the Council of Sutri (1046) the ex-pontiff, 
now John Gratian, following the emperor, took with him 
his pupil Hildebrand, the son of a Tuscan carpenter. 
The pair stopped at Cluny, where Hildebrand received the 
religious habit at the hands of St. Odilon. His learning 
and virtues soon marked him out for dignity. He was 
sent to the emperor's court, where for some time he acted 
as tutor to his godson, who afterward became Henry IV. 
Bruno, Bishop of Toul and uncle of Henry III., had 
been designated by the latter to succeed Pope Damasus 
II. Hildebrand urged him to go barefoot to Eome in pil- 
grim's garb, and so present himself to the electors. He 
did so and was unanimously elected, taking for title Leo 
IX. This was the first break from the emperor's power. 
Hildebrand was called to Eome and made cardinal (1049). 
He immediately set about reforming the clergy and secur- 
ing the independence of the Church. 

4. Reforms of Hildebrand. — After the death of St. Leo 
IX. Hildebrand first secured the regular election of the 
pontiff at Rome and then prevailed on the emperor to 
accept it. This he did in the case of the three successors 
of Leo IX. Finally, under Nicholas II. (1059), rules for 
pontifical elections were drawn up which left to the king 
a mere formal sanction when all was over. The king was 
Henry IV., still under tutelage of his pious mother, Ag- 
nes of Poitou. Hildebrand met with great opposition in 

3. Who was Hildebrand ? Describe bis early life. What advice did be give to 
Bruno ? 4. What important reforms did Hildebrand institute ? Were bis re- 
forms accepted ? 



256 History of the World. [ a .d. 1059-1073 

his strenuous attempts to reform the clergy. The young 
Henry was forcibly taken by the great German nobles 
from the care of his mother. Encouraged in his free- 
dom, he became an evil-liver, and to raise money sold 
ecclesiastical benefices to the highest bidder. He raised 
an anti-pope against Alexander II. (1061-1073), and both 
the Church and the German Empire were full of trouble. 

5. Hildebrand Pope (April, 1073).— On the death of 
Alexander there was a great concourse of cardinals, bish- 
ops, clerics, and laity assembled in the basilica of St. 
Peter to celebrate his obsequies. Suddenly, and as with 
one voice, the cry arose, " Peter chooses the Archdeacon 
Hildebrand as successor." He was there and then unani- 
mously elected under the title of Gregory. Henry ap- 
proved of the whole proceeding. 

6. St. Gregory VII. — Gregory's vast experience, unrelax- 
ing zeal, and unalterable firmness came to his aid in a 
position and time that his keen eye saw full of trouble 
and of menace. He never faltered, but took up his great 
work of reform. He was a wise man, however, and his 
letters to the princes and great nobles announcing his 
accession were full of dignity and tempered counsel to 
aid in putting down the evils that afflicted the Church. 
Prince after prince, noble after noble, he won to his side, 
among the first the dauntless Eobert Guiscard. He con- 
voked an annual council at Rome, wherein were discussed 
all ecclesiastical questions of law and of fact. Disciplinary 
canons were here renewed ; cases of ecclesiastics were de- 
cided on ; the guilty suffered the penalty of their crimes, 
the weak were strengthened, the good encouraged. All be- 
gan well. 

7. Gregory and Henry. — But the storm was coming. 

What of Henry IT.? 5. Describe the election of Hildebrand. 6. For what 
was Gregory VII. remarkable ? How did he begin his reign 1 What council did 
he institute ? 



a.d. 1073-1076] The Middle Ages. 257 

Henry at first professed the most filial submission and 
sorrow for the sins of his youth. He needed the pope's 
aid. Saxony and Thuringia had revolted against his ty- 
ranny, and the great vassals of the empire contemplated 
dethroning him. Petitions to the pope poured in to ex- 
communicate him and release his vassals from their alle- 
giance. 

8. Interdiction of Investitures. — The pope upheld the 
king as best he could. In a council held at Rome (1075) 
he struck at the vice of investiture, forbidding any lay 
prince to confer and any ecclesiastic to receive any inves- 
titure whatever. The decree was published throughout 
Christendom, and none opposed it. Henry was now em- 
peror elect and feared for his crown both in Germany 
and Italy. At Hohenburg (July 13, 1075) he triumphed 
over the Saxons. At once his courage rose and he bade 
the pope depose the prelates who had sided with the van- 
quished. Gregory refused. Henry thereupon, defying the 
pontifical decree, solemnly invested three German prelates. 
He further incited certain simoniacal prelates of Italy, 
headed by Guibert of Ravenna, to rise against the pope. 

9. Henry excommunicated. — Guibert, in concert with 
Cencius, a factious Roman noble, conspired against the 
pontiff's life. Cencius seized him at midnight while cele- 
brating Mass, but a rising of the populace delivered him. 
A cabal met at Worms under an excommunicated cardi- 
nal, and, heaping maledictions on Gregory, declared him 
deposed. Henry sent an insulting despatch to the pope 
announcing the fact (March, 1076). The pope responded 
by fulminating in full council against Henry and his abetr 
tors the sentence of excommunication, to be followed by 
deposition if within a year every one of the excommuni- 

7. Tell of Henry IV. 's troubles. 8. How did Gregory deal with investiture ? 
Did Henry accept the decree ? 9. What passed at Rome ? What passed at 
Worms ? How did the pope act ? 



^58 History of the World, [a.d. 1076-1077 

cated did not seek absolution from the Sovereign Pontiff 
in person. 

10. Canossa. — The solemn sentence was published 
throughout Germany, and Henry's power at once fell 
from him. The great vassals withdrew, while Saxony, 
aided by Snabia, Bavaria, and Carinthia, took up arms. 
Henry's troops were defeated, and a diet held at Tribur 
(October 15, 1076) notified the king that if within the 
year the censure was not removed a king would be cho- 
sen in his place. The nobles informed the pope of their 
resolution and begged him to proceed to Augsburg to 
preside at a new diet. Gregory besought them not to be 
hasty, and, to save Henry, set out for Germany, but the 
rigor of winter forced him to stay at Canossa. Thither 
Henry set out to meet him, accompanied by his wife, his 
young son, and a small retinue. 

11. To punish him for his crimes the pope, in accord- 
ance with the practice of the times, required him to per- 
form a three days' rigorous penance in the enclosure of 
the castle before admitting him to an audience. Henry 
submitted without reserve, and the pope withdrew the ban 
of excommunication. This is a scene of which much is 
made in non-Catholic history, but it is plain that the 
pope acted throughout in favor of a king whom a signal 
from him could at the time have destroyed (January 26, 
1077). 

12. Revolt in Germany. — Henry had not left Canossa 
before he forgot his vows and set to work intriguing 
with factious Italians and simoniacal prelates against 
the pope. He tried to close Germany against the pontiff, 
at which news the German nobles assembled at Forch- 
heim broke with the perjured prince without waiting 

10. What followed the excommunication 1 11. What happened at Canossa? 
12. Was Henry true to his promises ? What action did the German nobles 
take? 



a.d. 1080-1085] The Middle Ages. 259 

for the pope, and chose as king Rudolph of Suabia. 
Henry hastened back to Germany. Rudolph fell a vic- 
tor on the bloody field of Elster (1080). The struggle 
was renewed under Hermann of Luxemburg, a brave war- 
rior, but less to be feared than his predecessor. 

13. An Anti-Pope proclaimed. — Henry left him and re- 
turned to Italy to pursue the pope. He named Guiberfc 
of Ravenna anti-pope Avith the title of Clement III. He 
strove to obtain possession of the person of the pontiff. 
The heroic Countess Matilda roused the north of Italy 
to resistance. The Roman princes gathered around the 
walls of Rome and Robert Guiscard came to assist the 
Sovereign Pontiff. Henry with his anti-pope laid siege 
to the city in the spring of 1081, but for three years the 
besieged, aided by the diversions of Matilda, withstood all 
assaults. 

14. Eobert Guiscard in Rome. — Bribery won what arms 
could not achieve, and the people, weary of the long 
siege, opened the city to the Germans. Guibert was en- 
throned at St. Peter's and placed the imperial crown on 
Henry's head. Gregory had retired to the castle of San 
Angelo, and Robert Guiscard was hastening to his aid. 
Henry fled before Robert, leaving Rome to the mercy of 
the Norman. Robert entered, took vengeance on the 
treacherous inhabitants, and reinstated the pope. Sen- 
tence of excommunication was pronounced against the 
anti-pope and all his adherents, and the supremacy of 
the spiritual over the temporal was proclaimed. 

15. Death of St. Gregory VII— Gregory's mission was 
now completed. The Romans attributed to him their 
recent misfortunes, so he withdrew with Robert Guiscard 
to Monte Cassino, thence to Salerno. There, summoning 

Tell of the struggle in Germany. 13. What course did Henry pursue 1 Who 
were the pope's allies ? 14. What occurred in Rome 1 Who came to the pope's 
rescue ? 



260 History of the World. [a.d. 1085-1106 

the cardinals, bishops, and clerics about him, he com- 
manded them in the name of God to acknowledge as 
lawful po}3e none not elected and consecrated according to 
the canonical laws of the Church. Then, after a pause, 
he added: "I have loved justice and hated iniquity, 
therefore I die in exile." These were the last words of 
this great pontiff, reformer, and saint (May 25, 1085). 

16. Gregory's Heirs. — Gregory's work did not perish with 
him. After a year of hesitation Desiderius, abbot of Monte 
Cassino, whom Gregory had designated, accepted the election 
under the title of Victor III. After him came Otho, Bishop 
of Ostia, who held out for six months, but finally ascend- 
ed the papal throne as Urban II. Clement, the anti-pope, 
ruled in Rome. Italy and Germany were convulsed with 
strife. The kings Avere wavering in their allegiance, but 
Urban stood firm. In the councils of Piacenza and Cler- 
mont he declared his adhesion to the principles of Gregory 
VII., condemned the investitures, excommunicated Philip 
of Prance and Henry, and preached the first Crusade. 
The anti-pope was driven from Rome, and Urban entered 
in triumph. At his death, in 1099, he was succeeded by 
Pascal II., a choice of Gregory VII. Despite the efforts 
of the anti-popes, Pascal was soon acknowledged by all the 
faithful. 

17. End of Henry IV. — At the death of Gregory, Henry 
seemed to triumph. For twelve years Rome was closed 
against the lawful popes and his enemies one by one dis- 
appeared. But misfortunes soon arose in his own family. 
His eldest son, Conrad, had himself proclaimed king, and 
for six months occupied the fairest provinces of the empire. 
Henry's wife denounced him before the Council of Pia- 
cenza. His noblest kinsmen deserted him to join the 

15. Describe the death of Gregory Til. 16. What followed on Gregory's 
death ? What course did Urban II. pursue ? Who succeeded Urban 1 17. Tell 
of the after-scenes in Henry's life. 



a.d. 1106-1118] The Middle Ages. 2G1 

Crusades. Finally a revolt of his youngest son, Henry, 
drove him from the kingdom. He died in exile at Liege 
(1106) without becoming reconciled to the Church. 

18. Henry V. (1106-1125).— Henry V. had ostensibly ta- 
. ken up arms in defence of the Church. Pope Pascal, who 

showed himself yielding to Philip I. of France and Henry 
I. of England, thought to be firmer with the German mon- 
arch. He required him absolutely to renounce £he investi- 
tures. Henry refused and prepared to march on Eome. 
The pope advanced to Sutri to meet him, and there said 
he Avas ready to restore him all the ecclesiastical briefs of 
Germany and Italy, provided he would for ever renounce 
the investitures. These proposals Henry accepted. 

19. The agreement was so distasteful to the clergy that 
the pope retracted Thereupon the king, despite the resist- 
ance of the Romans, seized the pope, cast him into prison, 
and by dint of cruelty compelled him to sign a new compro- 
mise which partially conceded the king's demands. The 
pope was then restored to liberty and crowned Henry empe- 
ror (1111). Pascal had promised not to excommunicate the 
prince ; not so the French and German bishops, who de- 
nounced him in the councils of Vienne and Cologne. 

20. Concordat of Worms (1122).— The pope's decree of 
1111 created much discussion among the theologians. 
Henry rejected all other arrangements and entered Italy to 
secure the possessions of the Countess Matilda, recently de- 
ceased. Pascal fled from Rome, but was brought back by 
the Normans and died soon after (1118). His successor, 
Gelasius II., was also compelled to flee, and died at Cluny 
after a few months' pontificate. Guy of Burgundy, Arch- 
bishop of Vienne, was next elected under title of Calixtus 
II. Calixtus made moderate proposals to the emperor at 

18. How did Henry Y. act towards the pope ? What agreement was made ? 
19. By whom and why was the agreement withdrawn ? 20, What action did 
Henry take ? 



262 History of the World. [a.d. 1118-1125 

Bheims, which were rejected, Henry having just created 
an anti-pope. But threatened with excommunication, and 
seeing Germany in commotion, he consented to meet the 
diet at Worms (1122). There he renounced the investiture, 
granted full liberty of elections, and promised to restore to 
the Church all her possessions, the pope granting some 
minor concessions. 

21. Ninth (Ecumenical Council (1123). — In the following 
year was convoked an oecumenical council in the Lateran 
basilica, where the Concordat of Worms was approved of, 
the restoration of discipline arranged, and the state of the 
Christians in Spain and the East considered. This was 
the Ninth (Ecumenical Council, and the first held in the 
West (1123). Two years later- Henry died childless, and 
Lothaire II. (1125-1137), a pious prince, was elected in 
his place. He made no use of the privileges which the 
Concordat had granted him. 

SECTION II. The Popes and the Hohenstaufens (1137-1272). 

22. Origin of Italian Republics. — It had been conceded 
by the Concordat of Worms that the ecclesiastical elections 
should take place in presence of the emperor or his repre- 
sentative, with power of deciding in case of doubt. Lo- 
thaire refused to exercise this privilege. Disputed elec- 
tions, however, sometimes occurred, which in Germany 
were settled by the emperor's known desire ; but in Bur- 
gundy and Italy this decision did not avail. The citi- 
zens in Italy especially revolted against the temporal do- 
minion of the bishops and the harsh power of the nobles. 
In accordance with public demand consuls, elected by the 
citizens, were appointed to govern the city ; and the car- 
roccio, or car surmounted by altar, cross, and standards, 

What was done at Worms? 21. What was considered at the Ninth CEcumeni- 
cal Council? How did Lothaire use his privileges 1 22. What troubles arose in 
Italy? What was the carroccio ? 



ad. 1125-1189] The Middle A ges. 263 

around which the people rallied to prepare for war, began 
to come into use. Thus arose the Italian republics. 

23. Troubles in Rome. — The movement spread to Eome 
itself, and the constant assaults upon the popes gave it 
color and substance. At the death of Calixtus II. (1124) 
there occurred a double election ; but one of the elect re- 
nounced his claim, and thus schism was averted. At the 
death of Honorius II. (1130) a disputed election wrought 
a schism lasting eight years. The anti-Pope Anacletus 
conferred the title of king on Roger of Sicily, and so 
won his support. The pope, Innocent II., was forced to 
fly to France, where St. Bernard pleaded and won his 
cause. But not till the death of Anacletus was he able 
to maintain himself at Rome, though brought back in tri- 
umph. He then (1139) convoked the Tenth (Ecumenical 
Council (the second Lateran) to complete ecclesiastical re- 
form, condemn the schism of Anacletus, and anathematize 
certain heretics, among them Arnold of Brescia. 

24. Arnold of Brescia. — Arnold, a monk and disciple of 
the famous Abelard, taught that no cleric, from the pope 
down, should possess either revenue or temporal power, but 
attend solely to spiritual works. The doctrine found favor 
with the Romans in the disturbed state of the period. The 
return of Pope Innocent, who made peace with Roger by ac- 
knowledging him king, and the decrees of the council, com- 
pelled Arnold to fly. He took refuge in Zurich, but left a 
powerful political party behind him in Rome. They elected 
a senate, patrician, and tribunes, under whose favor Arnold 
returned to afflict Innocent's successors, particularly Eugene 
III., who was brought back to Rome by Roger. Arnold's 
party appealed to Conrad of Eranconia to come to Rome 
and rule the world, the pope included. 

23. Describe the difficulties attending elections. What of Innocent II. *? For 
what was the Tenth (Ecumenical Council convoked 1 24. Who was Arnold of 
Brescia ? What -was his teaching and work ? 



264; History of tee World. [a.d. 1137-1152 

25. Conrad III. (1137-1152).— The reign of Lothaire II. 
had been disturbed only by the claims of the family of 
Hohenstaufen, represented by the dukes Frederick of Sua- 
bia and Conrad of Francouia. The latter had assumed 
the title of king, which he relinquished at the voice of St. 
Bernard. In return he was elected to succeed Lothaire. 
The family of the Guelphs, represented by Heury the 
Proud, son-in-law and heir of Lothaire, held Bavaria, 
Saxony, and ffnscany. Conrad, on plea of the too great 
power of the family, took from them Saxony and Bava- 
ria, which he gave to other vassals. 

26. The Guelphs and OOiibelines. — Henry reconquered 
Saxony and died. His brother, Guelph of Altorf, was in 
command in Bavaria. Conrad approached to attack him 
in his headquarters at Winsberg Castle. To the royalist cry 
of "Waiblingen ! Waiblingen ! " the Winsbergers respond- 
ed with "Welfl Welf !" (Guelph). Thus originated the 
titles Guelph and Ghibeline, which were destined to be- 
come so famous in history and acquire a new meaning on 
Italian soil. The castle was forced to surrender, and to 
end the war Conrad gave Saxony to Henry the Lion, son 
of Henry the Proud ; but Bavaria remained in the con- 
queror's hands. 

27. Troubles in Italy. — This struggle and its effect on the 
empire, together with the departure of Conrad for the second 
Crusade, left Italy without German interference. On his re- 
turn from the Crusade Conrad stood aloof from Italian af- 
fairs and refused to be crowned emperor. Eoger of Sicily was 
master of southern Italy ; the rest of the country was given 
up to anarchy. Venice, Genoa, and Pisa rose into promi- 
nence and began to make sea ventures ; while Pavia 
headed the Ghibeline cities which still looked to Germany. 

25. What troubled the reign of Lothaire II. ? What of Conrad ? 26. What 
was the origin of the Guelphs and Ghibelines ? 27. How stood Italy at this 
time ? Who ruled in southern Italy ? What of northern Italy ? 



a.d. 1152-1158] The Middle Ages. 265 

28. Frederick Barbarossa (1152-1190). — Conrad desig- 
nated his nephew, Frederick, Duke of Suabia, as successor 
in place of his son, a minor. Frederick was at this time 
thirty and endowed with every gift worthy of a ruler. 
Immediately after his coronation he settled the disputed 
claim to the throne of Denmark. He resolved on sub- 
duing Hungary and strove to win over the Guelphs by 
restoring Bavaria to Henry the Lion. He next set out 
for Italy (1154) to resume the German suzerainty. The 
cities that revolted he took and sacked. Receiving the 
iron crown at Pavia, he went to Rome, where Adrian IY. 
(Nicholas Breakspere, the only Englishman that has sat 
in the chair of Peter) was pope. 

29. Revolt in Italy. — The Romans set the pope's tem- 
poral authority at naught. Arnold, their inspirer, was ex- 
communicated, and, escaping from Rome, fell into Frede- 
rick's hands. Frederick had him strangled and his body 
burnt in presence of the people. The Romans then sought 
to win large concessions from Frederick. He laughed at 
their pretensions, and, paying homage to the pope, was 
crowned by him emperor in St. Peter's (June 18, 1155). 
A revolt arose that only resulted in a massacre of the 
populace. As he passed northwards from Rome Frederick 
severely punished all revolt, and, returning to Germany, 
bent all to his will. 

30. Fall of Milan. — Frederick could brook no opposi- 
tion. Irritated at some expressions of the pope, he again 
entered Italy (1158) to chastise Milan, which had revolted, 
and William I., heir of Roger of Sicily, who had repelled 
the Greeks, allies of Frederick. After a brave resistance 
Milan was compelled to surrender. Its fortifications were 
destroyed and people exiled. A diet was held at Roncag- 

28. Who succeeded Conrad ? How did Frederick begin his reign ? 29. What 
befell Arnold of Brescia? How did Frederick treat the Komans ? 30. Describe 
the siege of Milan. 



266 History of the World. [ a .d. 1158-1176 

lia and a new constitution drawn up, which placed the 
entire government of northern Italy in the hands of Fred- 
erick. Even Church property was taxed by him, and Tus- 
cany, which had been left by Matilda to the Holy See, was 
bestowed on G-uelph. The emperor was about to be ex- 
communicated when Adrian died (September 1, 1159). 

31. Alexander III. (1159-1181) and the Lombard League. 
— Frederick's exactions roused the Lombard cities, and the 
emperor cruelly retaliated. The struggle was waged on 
both sides with extreme fury. Cardinal Eoland was elect- 
ed, under the name of Alexander III., to succeed Adrian. 
The emperor favored Octavian (Victor IV.), who had a 
minority of votes, and acknowledged him as pope. Alex- 
ander III. fled to France for refuge ; and henceforth Fred- 
erick's glory began to wane. 

32. Frederick's Decline. — He was soon called back to 
Italy, which had revolted against his tyrannical commissa- 
ries. The anti-pope died and Alexander entered Eome. 
Frederick marched on Rome and took it, but Alexander 
escaped to Benevento. The emperor's troops were deci- 
mated by a pestilence, while in his rear rose up fifteen 
Lombard cities pledged to defend their liberties, rebuild 
Milan, and uphold Alexander. Frederick in despair fled 
northward with a handful of men and narrowly escaped 
capture (1168). The Lombard League grew and built the 
city of Alessandria in honor of the pope. The emperor 
raised a new army and returned to wreak vengeance on 
the League. The campaign ended in a total defeat of his 
troops at the battle of Legnano (May 29, 1176), on the 
very day that his galleys were captured by the Venetians. 

33. Treaty of Venice (1177) ; Eleventh (Ecumenical Coun- 
cil (1179) and Peace of Constance (1183). — Frederick had 

What took place at Roncaglia? 31. What of the Lombard cities? Tell 
of the rupture between Frederick and the pope. 32. How fared Frederick in 
Italy ? Describe his struggle with the Lombard League. 



a. d. 1176-1190] The Middle Ages. 267 

to sue for peace, which was concluded at Venice. The 
pope and emperor became reconciled, and the anti-pope 
received an abbey ; William I. was received into the treaty, 
and the Lombard cities were granted peace. The Eomans 
besought the pope to return, and Alexander made a tri- 
umphal entry into the city. In the Lateran basilica he 
convoked (March, 1179) the Eleventh (Ecumenical Coun- 
cil, which enjoined that a two-thirds vote constituted a 
lawful election of the pope. 

34. The Diet of Constance. — Henry the Lion had with- 
drawn with his vassals from Italy during Frederick's dis- 
astrous campaign. Frederick now declared him a felon 
and deprived him of Saxony and Bavaria. The inherit- 
ance of the house of Guelph was divided up into twenty 
petty principalities holding immediately from the crown. 
At the diet of Constance (June 25, 1183) Frederick ac- 
knowledged the independence of the Lombard cities, 
maintaining a show of allegiance. Thenceforth the Ita- 
lian republics chose their own government, the few cities 
that still adhered to the emperor constituting the Ghibe- 
line party in Italy. The others were called the Guelph 
party from their opposition to the imperial power. 

35. Death of Frederick Barbarossa. — Henry, Frederick's 
eldest son by his marriage with Constance, daughter of 
Roger II. and heiress to all the Norman possessions in 
southern Italy, became master of these. Thus the Pa- 
pacy was threatened by the Hohenstaufens north and 
south. At this time Saladin was menacing Jerusalem, 
and, at the call of the pope, Frederick assumed the cross, 
though then sixty-eight. After penetrating Asia Minor 
and gaining many victories he was drowned in the Cyd- 
nus (June 10, 1190). 

33. Tell of the treaty of Yenice. What was enacted at the Eleventh (Ecu- 
menical Council? 34, What was arranged at the diet of Constance ? What fol- 
lowed the diet 1 35. How and where did Frederick die ? 



268 History of the World. [a.d. 1190-1212 

36. Claimants to the Empire (1190-1216).— Frederick 
left Germany to his son, Henry VI. (1190-1197), who 
treacherously imprisoned Eichard Coeur de Lion, and with ' 
his ransom fitted out an expedition against Sicily. His 
cruelty rendered him odious to every one, and he died 
suddenly (1197), leaving Sicily to his son, then three years 
old, who had been named King of the Eomans. The edu- 
cation of the boy was entrusted to the pope, Innocent III. 

37. The popes were averse to the union of the crowns 
of Germany and Sicily. Henry VI. at his coronation 
consented to their separation. At his death the German 
electors agreed to choose a prince of their own. The votes 
were divided between the Guelph Otho of Brunswick, son 
of Henry the Lion, and the Ghibeline Philip of Hohenstau- 
fen, Duke of Suabia and brother of Henry VI. Innocent 
favored Otho, and Philip was assassinated (1208). The 
votes of all then fell to Otho, who was crowned emperor 
by the pope (1209). 

38. Otho IV. — The emperor hastened to break all his 
promises. He fomented disturbances at Eome and strove 
to win Sicily from Frederick. He was excommunicated 
(1211). His nobles fell away from him and turned to the 
young Frederick. The only ally of the emperor was John 
of England. After vainly striving to stem the current he 
retired into private life and died reconciled to the Church 
(1218). 

39. Frederick was solemnly crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, 
after confirming in the diet of Egra the Church's preroga- 
tives. He was guided in all things by Pope Innocent up to 
the death of the latter (1216). 

40. Frederick II. (1212-1250) and Honorius III. (1216- 
1227). — With the death of the pope came a change in 

36. To whom did Frederick leave the empire, and with what results ? 37. 
What followed the death of Henry YI. 1 38. Describe the reign of Otho IT 
39. How did Frederick II. begin his reign % 



a. d. 1212-1241] The Middle Ages. 269 

Frederick. He gave way wholly to personal ambition. He 
"abandoned his promises and engagements, and the loss of 
Damietta (1219) to the Christians was chiefly owing to his 
broken pledges. He was ambitious less for the cross than 
for the extension of his own dominion over Italy and Ger- 
many. He deceived the pope, Honorius III., while he se- 
cretly incited his subjects to rebel. He caused his son 
Henry to be elected king of the Eomans, in violation of 
the agreement entered into with Frederick Barbarossa. The 
pope, believing his solemn promises of loyalty to the Holy 
See and to former treaties, crowned him emperor (1220). 

41. Notwithstanding his oft-repeated promise and solemn 
vow to join the Crusades, Frederick found reasons to re- 
main at home and secure his grasp on Sicily by joining 
hands with the Saracens who still infested the island. 
The pope died (1227) while Frederick, instead of going 
to the Crusades, was contemplating the restoration of the 
German power over the Lombard cities. The cities rose 
up and Frederick's troops were driven out. 

42. Gregory IX. — Gregory IX. succeeded Innocent. 
Though a very old man, he saw through the ambitious* 
schemes of Frederick and exposed them. The pope, how- 
ever, stood by the king and did Lis best to maintain 
peace in Germany. Frederick, true to himself, respond- 
ed by getting Pietro delle Vigne to collect the laws of 
Sicily so as to justify Csesarism: 

43. Frederick II. in Italy. — In Germany Prince Henry 
had revolted and the emperor set Conrad IV. up in his 
place. Entering Italy, he made war on the Lombard 
cities, destroying Vicenza and Mantua, beating the Mi- 
lanese, and invading all the liberties of the League. The 
pope, aided by the Genoese and Venetians, declared against 

40. How did Frederick change? What was his character? 41. What was 
Frederick's policy ? How did he fare in Italy ? 42. What of Gregory IX. and 
Frederick ? 43. Tell of Frederick and the Lombard League. 



270 History of the World. [a.d. 1241-1250 

him, and, on the emperor's appointing his natural son 
Enzio king of Sardinia, excommunicated him and released 
his subjects from their allegiance. There was now open 
war between the pope and the emperor. Frederick, aided 
by the Saracens, laid waste the Campagna and besieged 
Kome. The pope preached a crusade against him and 
convoked a council. Frederick was driven back by the 
crusaders, but imprisoned the bishops on their way to the 
council. The pope, worn, out by his years and infirmities, 
died at the age of ninety-eight (1241). 

44. Frederick and Innocent IV. (1243-1254).— The em- 
peror held fast to the imprisoned bishops and cardinals. 
His permission was needed to elect a new pope, Celes- 
tine IV., who died eighteen days after his election and 
had no successor for seventeen months. Finally Sinibaldo 
de' Fieschi, a close friend of Frederick's, was elected, and 
chose the name of Innocent IV. "Fieschi was my friend," 
said Frederick,, "but Innocent will be my enemy." He 
was right. The pope cited Frederick before a council. 
Frederick marched on Eome, destroying everything in his 
way. The pope escaped by the Genoese fleet and went to 
Lyons, where he assembled the Thirteenth General Council 
(1245). Innocent laid the condition of Europe and of 
the East before the council, where Pietro delle Vigne and 
Thaddeus of Suessa had been sent to plead Frederick's 
cause. Frederick was excommunicated and degraded. 

45. Death of Frederick II. — On hearing the news he 
put on his crown, exclaiming : " Torrents of blood shall 
flow ere it falls from my head." Aided always by his 
faithful Saracens, he began by committing great atrocities 
among the Guelphs of Eomagna and Tuscany. Eccelino 
and Enzio stood for him in Lombardy, and Conrad in 

What action did the pope take? How did Frederick retaliate? 44. Tell 
what happened on the death of Gregory IX. What took place at the Council of 
Lyons ? 45. Describe Frederick's last campaign. 



a.d. 1250-1288] The Middle A ges. 271 

Germany. The Germans proclaimed Henry Raspon, Land- 
grave of Thuringia, and, on his death, William, Count of 
Holland. Enzio was taken by the Bolognese ; and Frede- 
rick, beaten at Parma, sued for peace. He died soon after 
in retirement (1250). 

46. End of the Hohenstaufens (1250-1272).— Conrad, 
forced to quit Germany by William of Holland, claimed his 
hereditary kingdom of Sicily, which was contested by Man- 
fred, natural son of Frederick II. He won his throne, but 
died at the age of twenty- six, leaving an infant son, Con- 
radin. Manfred seized upon the government, crushed the 
Guelphs at Florence, and defied the pope, Alexander IV. 
The cruel Eccelino, at the head of the Ghibelines, still raged 
in the north. A crusade was preached against him, and he 
died of wounds received in battle. 

47. Charles of Anjou. — The Lombard cities freed them- 
selves, but the Two Sicilies remained under the yoke. 
Pope Urban IV. called to his aid Charles of Anjou, 
Count of Provence and brother of St. Louis of France. 
He entered Rome despite Manfred's opposition, and was 
crowned by the pope. He defeated and slew Manfred at 
Benevento (12G6), thus securing his new kingdom. Con- 
radin remained in Bavaria under the care of his mother 
and in the midst of a brilliant circle of warriors and men 
of letters. Charles proved a harsh ruler, and the people 
turned to the young prince, who was then only fifteen. 
He entered Italy, but his army was easily defeated by 
Charles, and the prince himself perished on the scaffold, 
thus ending the house of Hohenstaufen (1268). 

48. Interregnum in Germany. — With the death of Frede- 
rick II. followed the interregnum of the empire (1250- 
1272). For twenty-two years there was really no gene- 

46. What befell Conrad and his kingdom ? Describe events in the north of 
Italy. 47. Whom did the pope call in? With what result? How did the 
Hohenstaufens end 1 48. What followed the death of Frederick II. ? 



272 History of the World. [ a .d. 996-1021 

rally acknowledged emperor. The great vassals exercised 
all royal rights in their domains. The petty vassals 
claimed to pay homage only to the nominal suzerainty of 
the crown. Many cities secured their freedom and made 
leagues among themselves, as in the Hanseatic League 
and free cities of the Rhine, for commerce and mutual 
protection. The struggle between the empire and the 
Church thus ended in the dissolution of the empire. 



CHAPTER II. 
THE CRUSADES IN THE EAST. 

Feom 1095 to 1270 eiglit military expeditions were undertaken against the 
Mussulmans at the appeal of the popes. Their object was to recover the holy 
places and rescue the Christians in the East. 

SECTION I. First Crusade (1095-1099). 

1. Objects of the Crusades. — The scenes of our Lord's 
life and suffering on earth were natural objects of vene- 
ration and pilgrimage to Christians. The cross on which 
Christ died and the Holy Sepulchre were discovered «by 
St. Helena, mother of Constantine the Great (326). In 
638 Jerusalem fell into the hands of the Mussulmans. 
This was a great shock to Christendom. The persecution 
of the Christians by the caliph Hakem (996-1021) roused 
Pope Sylvester II. to preach the first Crusade. 

2. The Seljukian Turks. — In the latter half of the elev- 
enth century the Mussulmans, holding the African coast, 
menaced Christendom on the south, and were especially for- 
midable in the East. The Gaznevides were crushed by the 
Tartars from Turkistan. Their chief was Togrul-Beg, a 

Describe the interregnum in Germany and its results. How many Cru- 
sades were there, and what was their object? 1. Who and what originated the 
Crusades 1 2. By whom was Christendom threatened in the eleventh century ? 



a.d. 1021-1094] The Middle A ges. 273 

grandson of Seljuk. At the call of the Abbasside caliphs 
he entered Bagdad and overthrew the Buides. For this 
he was awarded by the caliph the temporal sovereignty of 
all the Mussulman states (1058). The Abbasside caliphs 
thenceforth exercised, as successors of Mohammed, only 
spiritual authority. 

3. Seljukian Conquests — The Seljukian sultans became 
great conquerors. Armenia and Georgia were taken from 
the Greeks by Alp-Arslan (Strong Lion), Togrul-Beg's 
nephew and successor. The Emperor Eomanus IV. was 
defeated and captured by him (1071), and only released 
on payment of a great ransom and promise of an annual 
tribute. Malek-Shah (1072-1092), eldest son of Alp, ex- 
tended the boundaries of his empire to China and the 
Indus. All Asia Minor, save Trebizond, was wrested from 
the Greeks, and Cairo, Syria, and Palestine from the 
Fatimites. At Malek's death his empire was divided up 
into the sultanates of Damascus, Aleppo, Persia, and Ico- 
nium. The sultan of Iconium possessed all Asia Minor 
and encamped within sight of Constantinople. The 
others were less powerful, and in 1094 the Fatimites of 
Cairo recaptured Jerusalem, which they held to the com- 
ing of the Crusaders. 

4. The Old Man of the Mountain and his Assassins. — 
Hassan, chamberlain to Malek-Shah, having fallen into 
disgrace, fled to Egypt. There, adopting the Fatimite 
maxim that "nothing is true and everything lawful," he 
started a secret society and chose as his headquarters the 
fortress of Alamout, in the Persian mountains (1090). 
He was known as the Sheikh -al-Jabal, or Old Man of the 
Mountain. His rule was absolute with his followers, who 
were styled Assassins. Whatever he bade them do they 

Tell of Togrul-Bog and his exploits. 3. Tell of Alp-Arslan and Malek-Shah. 
What followed on the death of Malek ? 4. Who was the Old Man of the Moun* 
tain, and what did he establish ? 



274 History of the World. [ a . d . 1094-1098 

did, even at tire sacrifice of life. He became so powerful 
that Malek himself fell a victim to his orders ; and a. 
son who thought to avenge the sultan was glad to com- 
promise with Hassan. The sect was exterminated in the 
thirteenth century by the Mongols in Persia and by the 
Mamelukes in Syria. 

5. The Comnenus Dynasty. — The soldiers of the Eastern 
Empire set the family of Comnenus on the throne after the 
schism of Michael Cerularius (1057). The Seljukian Turks 
advanced against the weakening empire as far as the shores 
of the Bosporus. The Greeks were at the same time driven 
out of southern Italy by Robert Guiscard, who also threat- 
ened Constantinople. The Hungarians and Tartars ravaged 
along the right bank of the Danube, and the Greeks were 
squabbling at home. 

6. Alexis Comnenus was an able commander, but found 
himself penniless and defenceless when the Turks threat- 
ened his capital (1095). He appealed for aid to the Chris- 
tians of the West, and his appeal decided the first Cru- 
sade. But, with Greek duplicity, he played with both par- 
ties, Christians and Turks. In this he was followed by 
his successors, and the end was fatal to the empire. 

7. Peter the Hermit ; Urban II. ; Council of Clermont. — 
A French priest named Peter, a pilgrim to the holy places, 
fired at the indignities he witnessed in Jerusalem, went to 
Pope Urban II., described the scenes to him, .and obtained 
permission to preach through Europe the sad condition of 
the Holy Land. Barefoot, girt with a rope, and crucifix 
in hand, the holy hermit travelled through the greater part 
of Europe, moving all hearts by his eloquence. A prepa- 
ratory council was called by the pope at Piacenza, and a 
more solemn one at Clermont, two hundred and thirty- 

5. What of the Comnenus family 1 By -what foes was the Eastern Empire 
threatened ? 6. What was the appeal and character of Alexis Comnenus ? 7. Who 
was commissioned to preach the first Crusade 1 



a.d. 1096-1098] The Middle Ages. 275 

nine prelates attending. Thousands of nobles and multi- 
tudes of people encamped around the city. On the sev- 
enth day the pope addressed the multitude, and at once 
went up the cry, " G-od wills it ! " They pledged them- 
selves to go to the rescue of the Holy Land, and, as a 
mark of their vow, wore a cross of red fastened to the 
right shoulder. Hence the name Crusader and the Cru- 
sades. 

8. First Crusade. — From all Christian lands came the 
Crusaders. Peter and Walter the Penniless, a Burgundian 
knight, followed by a hundred thousand men, set out for 
the Holy Land. It was a rabble rather than an army, 
and melted away on the route (1096). A regular army 
followed under various leaders, chief of whom was the 
gallant Duke Godfrey of Bouillon, Lower Lorraine. 
Alexis Comnenus was alarmed at the multitude of war- 
riors. He induced the Crusaders to swear fealty to him- 
self and promise to give over to him the cities that had 
once belonged to the empire. 

9. Capture of Antioch.— Six hundred thousand men, 
one-sixth of whom were knights, encamped on the plains 
of ISTicgea, the capital of Iconium. The sultan abandoned 
his city, which was taken by the Greeks. At Dorylseuni, 
in Phrygia, he fell upon a division of the Christian army 
and would have destroyed it had not Godfrey arrived to 
the rescue. But the Turks harassed the Crusaders on 
their weary march across the plains of Asia Minor. Ei- 
valries broke out among the Christian leaders, and Bald- 
win of Flanders, brother of Godfrey, withdrew with his 
division to conquer Edessa, in Mesopotamia (1097). The 
others entered Syria and besieged Antioch. After eight 
months Bohemond of Tarentum succeeded in entering 

Describe the scene at the Council of Clermont. 8. What befell the first ex- 
pedition"? Who was chief in command? 9. Describe the opening campaign. 
Who captured Antioch ? 



276 History of the World. [ a . d . 1098-1147 

and capturing the fortress deemed impregnable, for which 
exploit he was made Prince of Antioch (1098). 

10. Kerboga, Sultan of Mosul, came to the rescue at the 
head of three hundred thousand men, and the conquerors 
found themselves besieged. Famine and disease set in, 
and the Christians were on the verge of despair when the 
enthusiasm of Peter Bartholomew, a priest of Marseilles, 
so roused them that they fell upon the infidels, destroyed 
them, and opened Palestine to the cross. 

11. Capture of Jerusalem. — There were now left only 
fifty thousand Crusaders capable of bearing arms. These 
advanced on the holy city of Jerusalem. They were re- 
pulsed, but after a five weeks' siege G-odfrey took the city 
by storm (July 15, 1099). Godfrey was made King of 
Jerusalem, and his kingdom was divided into five great 
fiefs, which again were subdivided, Jerusalem holding the 
seigniory. The caliph of Cairo came to the rescue of the 
Seljukians, but was defeated near Ascalon (1100). God- 
frey died soon after, and was succeeded by his brother 
Baldwin (1100-1118). New conquests were added, and 
Baldwin II. (1118-1131) extended the kingdom from As- 
calon to Mount Taurus. 

12. Knights Hospitalers and Templars. — To secure the 
country a permanent militia was organized of men who 
took religious vows as well as the soldier's oath. They 
were a sort of lay monks. The Knights Hospitalers got 
their title from the Hospital of St. John the Baptist 
founded in Jerusalem for sick prisoners (1100). A variety 
of these orders soon sprang up, some of whom became 
very famous in history. All pledged themselves to accom- 
plish some special work in defence of the holy places or 
of people journeying thither. 

10. How was Antioch saved? 11. How was Jerusalem taken? Who was made 
king? Describe subsequent events. 12. Who were the Knights Hospitalers ? 
Had they imitators ? 



a.d. 1147-1173] The Middle Ages. 277 

13. Second Crusade (1147-1149). — Divisions arose among 
the Christians, and the kingdom of Jerusalem soon threat- 
ened to fall to pieces. Edessa had twice fallen, to Zenghi, 
the Emir of Mosul, and his son, ISTureddin (1144-1146). 
St. Bernard was commissioned by Pope Eugenius III. to 
preach a new Crusade. He fired Erance with his elo- 
quence, and the king, Louis, himself assumed the cross, 
while in Germany Conrad III. and his knights pledged 
themselves at the diet of Speyer. 

14. Greek Treachery. — Conrad's expedition failed through 
lack of discipline and the treachery of the Greeks, who in 
all the Crusades were never moved by a higher motive 
than their own profit and advantage. The wreck of his 
forces met the advancing army of the Erench. These 
followed the coast line as far as Ephesus, when Louis, 
abandoning the coast, turned inward up the valley of the 
Meander. His bravery only saved his army from complete 
destruction. 

15. Failure of the Second Crusade. — Louis and Conrad, 
joining their forces with those of Baldwin III., King of 
Jerusalem, laid siege to Damascus, but, owing to treachery 
and bribery in their own body, failed to take it. King 
Louis, after the loss of his army, on his way back to 
Erance fell into the hands of Greek pirates and was only 
restored to liberty at the intervention of King Boger of 
Sicily. St. Bernard, being held responsible for these dis- 
asters, replied that the Crusaders and Eastern Christians 
had drawn God's wrath on them by their own disorders. 

16. Saladin. — Saladin, one of Nureddin's generals, suc- 
ceeded him in 1173. He reunited Egypt to Syria. He 
proved a very able sultan, and became founder of the new 
dynasty of the Ayubites, so called after his father. At 

13. Were the Crusaders united ? Who preached the second Crusade 1 14. How 
did the Greeks act ? 15. How fared the expedition? What befell Louis ? 16. Tell 
of Saladin and his work. 



278 History of the World. [a.d. 1173-1191 

the bloody contested battle of Tiberias (1187) lie defeat- 
ed the Crusaders, slew Eeginald, Prince of Antioch, cap- 
tured Guy, King of Jerusalem, and the relic of the true 
cross, and ordered the massacre of all the Templars and 
Hospitalers taken. Jerusalem was again lost to the Chris- 
tians. Pope Urban III. died of grief. His successor, Cle- 
ment III., ordered William, Archbishop of Tyre, to preach 
a new Crusade. Only soldiers were this time enlisted. 
Those who remained behind assisted by contributing a 
tithe, called Saladin's, to defray the cost of the war. 
Frederick Earbarossa, Philip of France, and Eichard I. 
of England took the cross (1189). 

17. Third Crusade. — The monarchs were to have united 
their forces. Frederick descended the Danube and foiled 
the treachery of the Greeks. He defeated the Sultan of 
Iconium in two engagements, took his capital, and tra- 
versed Asia Minor. His death in the Calycadnus was a great 
blow to the cause. His son Frederick led the broken 
forces back to Palestine, where he joined Guy, the libe- 
rated King of Jerusalem, and laid siege to Acre. 

18. Eichard I. in the Holy Land. — Philip of France 
and Eichard of England, who should have joined them, 
were delayed all winter off Sicily. In addition they quar- 
relled. Eichard, who was affianced to Philip's sister, broke 
off the engagement and married Berengaria of Navarre at 
Cyprus (1191). Philip, angered, set sail without him. 
Eichard, storm-driven on Cyprus, took it from the Greeks 
and sold it to Guy, who, with the loss of Jerusalem, had 
relinquished his title of king. Eichard then hastened to 
Acre, and his prowess and courage gave a new heart to 
the Christians. Saladin called on all the Saracens to join 
in the holy war. Acre fell by assault, but in the hour of 

What happened at Tiberias? Who now took the cross? 17. How did the 
third Crusade open 1 18. What differences arose between Philip and Richard 1 
Tell of Richard's exploits in the East. 



a.d. 1191-1203] The Middle Ages. 279 

victory the Christian leaders quarrelled, and an open rup- 
ture was with difficulty prevented between Richard and 
the Duke of Austria. 

19. Return of Richard. — Richard remained in Palestine 
two years and performed prodigies of Yalor. His name 
became a terror to the Saracens. He wrested from them 
all the cities of the coast, and compelled Saladin to sign 
a treaty by which the Christians were secured in posses- 
sion of the coast between Tyre and Jaffa (Joppa), with 
liberty to visit the holy places free of tribute. Jerusalem, 
however, remained in Moslem hands. Disturbances in 
England recalled him before he could capture it. On his 
way back he fell into the hands of his enemy, Leopold 
of Austria, who surrendered him to Henry VI., and it 
was only at the solicitation of the pope and the Emperor 
of Germany that he was at last released and his ransom 
reduced (1194). During his imprisonment occurred the 
death of Saladin. 

20. Fourth Crusade (1202-1204).— Saladin's empire was 
divided among his sons. Dissensions rent it until his 
brother, Malek-el-Adel, secured whole mastery and pro- 
claimed his intention of driving out the Christians. Pope 
Innocent III. commissioned Fulk of Neuilly to preach a 
new Crusade. A number of experienced commanders as- 
sumed the cross, and the Crusaders soon numbered four 
thousand knights and twenty thousand men-at-arms. They 
made for Egypt, which was the key of Palestine, but were 
stayed by the greed of the Venetians, who were to furnish 
the galleys. They received Zara, which the Crusaders 
took, by way of compensation. 

21. Constantinople taken by the Crusaders. — The Cru- 
saders, in spite of the protests of Innocent III., turned 

19. What treaty did Eichard force on Saladin ? What befell Richard on his 
return % 20. What happened on the death of Saladin ? How did the fourth Cru- 
sade open? 21. What hefell Constantinople? 



280 History of the World. [a.d. 1203-1212 

their arms against Constantinople, which, almost defence- 
less, was easily taken (1203). Alexis, son of Isaac Ange- 
lus, the aged Emperor of the East, was placed upon, the 
throne, whence his father had been driven by a usurper. 
Alexis was soon deposed and strangled, and succeeded by 
Ducas Murzuphlus, one of his officers, who assumed the 
title of Alexis V. The Crusaders, who had not been 
paid the sum stipulated for their services, again besieged 
Constantinople and pillaged it. Murzuphlus was slain 
(1204). 

22. Destruction of the Greek Empire. — The Greek Em- 
pire was then divided among the Crusaders. Baldwin of 
Elanders was chosen emperor and allotted a fourth of the 
empire. The rest was divided between the Yenetians and 
the Crusaders. The new empire lasted fifty-seven years. 
The Bulgarians first assailed it and took Baldwin prisoner 
at Adrianople (1205). He died in captivity. The Creeks, 
out of what was left to them, founded the principality of 
Epirus, or Albania, and the empires of Meaea and Trebi- 
zond. Baldwin's successors were soon confined to their 
capital. The Greeks were constantly undermining the 
structure raised by the Crusaders, and Baldwin II. was 
finally driven from Constantinople by Michael Palaaologus, 
Emperor of Mcsea, who founded a new Greek Empire 
that lasted one hundred and ninety-two years (1261-1453). 

SECTION II. The Children's Crusade (1212) ; Fifth Crusade (1217-1221). 

23. Disastrous Expeditions. — The failure of the Cru- 
sades was attributed to the wickedness of the Crusaders, 
and an idea got abroad that the Holy Sepulchre could 
only be regained by innocent hands. With this origi- 
nated a Crusade of children to the number of fifty thou- 

What followed the capture of Constantinople? 22. What became of the 
Greek Empire 1 What became of the new empire ? Tell of Michael Palteologus 
and his work. 23. Tell of the Children's Crusade. 



a.d. 1212-1228] The Middle A ges. 281 

sand, who set out for Palestine (1212), only to perish on 
the route or fall into the hands of the Saracens on their 
arrival in the country. Innocent III., in the Lateran 
Council, appealed for a new Crusade (1215). Frederick 
II., Emperor of Germany, promised to lead it, but broke 
his promise. Andrew II., King of Hungary, then took 
command, but was foiled in his first attack on Mount Tha- 
bor. He withdrew disheartened and returned to Europe. 

24. John of Brienne. — John of Brienne, titular King of 
Jerusalem, took his place, entered Egypt, and after a two 
years' siege took Damietta (1218-1219). The Sultan of 
Egypt then agreed to surrender Jerusalem and pay tri- 
bute. The offer was refused and the Crusaders advanced 
on Cairo, but were checked and the army threatened with 
destruction by the overflow of the Nile. Then John 
went alone to the sultan's tent and appealed to him to 
save them. The appeal was generously responded to, 
peace was concluded, and the Crusaders were allowed to 
depart on condition of surrendering Damietta and main- 
taining peace for eight years. 

25. Sixth Crusade (1228). — John pledged himself never 
again to bear arms against the infidels, and ceded to Fred- 
erick II., his son-in-law, the title of King of Jerusalem. 
The emperor dallied at home, however, and it was only 
after his excommunication by Gregory IX. that he pre- 
pared to depart. On landing at Acre he began to negoti- 
ate. The Sultan of Egypt agreed to cede to him Beth- 
lehem, Nazareth, Tyre, and Sidon on condition that the 
Mussulmans should have liberty of worship there. On 
entering Jerusalem no bishop would crown an excommu- 
nicated prince, so he crowned himself and hastened back 
to Europe. 

How did the fifth Crusade open'? 24. What of John of Brienne? How 
was peace concluded ? 25. Tell of the sixth Crusade and the part played by 
Frederick II. 



282 History of the World. [a.d. 1248-1254 

SECTION III. Tke Two Crusades of St. Louis. 

26. Seventh. Crusade. — The hordes driven out of Turkis- 
tan by the Mongols fell upon Palestine and captured Jeru- 
salem. Pope Innocent IV., then presiding at the Council 
of Lyons, himself preached a new Crusade (1248-1254). 
Louis IX. of France was the only king who responded. 
After four years of preparation he set out at the head of 
an army of forty-five thousand men. He took Damietta 
(1249), and remained there five months. The delay pro- 
duced a lack of discipline and an epidemic attacked the 
troops. He marched on Cairo, but the Saracens fought 
the ground inch by inch. The rashness of the Count of 
Artois, brother of the king, converted a victory into a 
disastrous defeat at Mansurah, where the flower of the 
Christian knights were destroyed (1250). Eetreat was de- 
termined on, but the way back was now closed, and the 
king and his two brothers were taken prisoners. Louis 
was finally released at a ransom of four hundred thousand 
livres for his fellow-captives and the city of Damietta for 
himself. 

27. Death of St. Louis.— He then sailed for Palestine 
and renewed his efforts on behalf of the Christians. He 
left the country in 1254 on learning of the death of his 
pious and great mother, Blanche of Castile, who had 
carried on the regency during his absence. He still con- 
templated a new Crusade. Acre was the only city in Pal- 
estine left to the Christians. His brother, Charles of 
Anjou, had become master of the Two Sicilies, and rep- 
resented that the Bey of Tunis was willing to receive 
baptism if a Christian army landed in his dominions. 
Louis again set sail, only to find he had been deceived. 

26. Who preached and who led the seventh Crusade ? What success attended 
the Crusade ? How did it end % 27. Why did St. Louis return to France ? What 
new enterprise did he undertake 1 What hefell St. Louis in Tunis ? 



a.d. 1254-1291] The Middle Ages. 283 

Tunis was bravely defended against him and his camp 
was invaded by pestilence, to which Louis himself fell 
a victim and ended a holy life by a holy death (1270). 
His successor, Philip III., concluded an honorable truce. 
The Bey of Tunis agreed to defray the costs of the war, to 
set his Christian captives free and grant free Christian 
worship through all his dominions. Thus ended the last 
Crusade, and twenty years later (1291) Acre was lost to the 
Christians. 

28. Results of the Crusades. — The Crusades, though they 
resulted in disaster to the Christian arms, opened up com- 
merce between Europe and the East. Hitherto the Arabs 
had controlled the Eastern trade. It now passed into the 
hands of the seaboard cities of Italy and France. Venice, 
Genoa, Pisa, and Marseilles were enriched by the traffic in 
gold, silk, ivory, perfumes, etc., and trade spread from 
them to other cities. Erom the Tyrians Venice learnt how 
to make glass ; and the Crusaders brought back with them 
the windmill. The Crusades also served to bring the Eu- 
ropean nations into closer connection with one another ; 
and it was no small thing to see them all knit together in 
a great Christian cause. Art and literature felt the new 
movement and were benefited by it. 



CHAPTER III. 
TEE CRUSADES IN EUROPE. 

SECTION I.. Crusades against the Moors in Spain. 

1. Alfonso VI. — The war of the Spaniards against the 
Moors lasted nearly eight centuries (711-1492). It would 
have ended much earlier were it not for the divisions of 



How and by whom was the Crusade ended ? 28. What effect had the Crusades 
on Europe 1 What commercial changes did they introduce ? 1. How long did 
the struggle last between the Spaniards and the Moors ? 



284 History of the World. [a.d. 1085-1147 

the Christians among themselves. Alfonso VI., son of Fer- 
dinand the Great of Castile, won Toledo by the aid of the 
Cid after a five years' siege (1085), and made it his capital. 
The Moors begged aid from the African Mussulmans, who 
made three separate invasions under the name of Almora- 
vides, Almohades, and Merinides. 

2. The Almoravides. — Yusuf, chief of the Almoravides 
and founder of Morocco (1070), responded to the call of 
the Spanish Moors and routed Alfonso YI. at Zelaca (1086). 
He sent the heads of forty thousand Christians to the cities 
of his empire as trophies. He made himself master of 
Moorish Spain. In 1094 Henry of Burgundy conquered the 
country of Portugal, which he took from the Moors. The 
Cid in the same year took Valencia, which he held till 
his death (1099). But a great disaster befell the Chris- 
tian arms in 1108, when Sancho, a boy of eleven, son of 
Alfonso' VI., headed the Castilians. His defeat and death 
hastened the death of his father. 

3. The Kingdom of Portugal (1094-1139). — French 
knights had responded to the call of Alfonso VI. To 
two princes of the house of Burgundy, Raymond and 
Henry, he gave two of his daughters in marriage. As 
his wife's dower Henry received part of the land now 
known as Portugal, which was made a county under the 
suzerainty of Castile (1094). Henry won seventeen battles 
over the Mussulmans. Affonso I. (1112-1185), his son and 
successor, pushed the limits of his domain beyond the Ta- 
gus. After a great victory over five Moorish kings (1139) 
his soldiers greeted him with the title of king. The Cortes, 
or assembly, confirmed the title and made it hereditary. 
He made Lisbon, which he won from the Moors, his capital 
(1147). 

What of Alfonso VI. 1 Whom did the Moors call in ? 2. What of Yusuf and 
his achievements ? What ahout Portugal ? How did Alfonso's reign end ? 
3. How came Portugal to he made a kingdom 1 



a.d. 1109-1146] The Middle Ages. 285 

4. Alfonso I. — Alfonso VI. of Castile left the crown to 
his eldest daughter, Urraca, widow of Kaymond, and wife, 
hy a second marriage, of Alfonso I., King of Navarre and 
Aragon. Thus to Alfonso fell all Christian Spain (1109). 
Urraca, separating from him (1114), governed Castile alone 
in the name of her son by her first marriage. Alfonso de- 
voted himself to battling with the Moors. In 1118 he 
took Saragossa, which he made his capital. By the capture 
of Tarragona all the valley of the Ebro fell into his hands. 
After vanquishing the Moors in twenty-nine battles he was 
killed in the thirtieth and Navarre lost to Aragon. 

5. Alfonso VIII,— At the death of Urraca (1126) Alfonso 
VIII. succeeded to the throne of Castile. He had already 
been proclaimed king of Leon (1112). His victories over 
the Moors gained for him from the Cortes the title of Em- 
peror of Spain (1135). He pushed his dominions south- 
ward and took Calatrava and Almeria. These conquests, 
added to that of Lisbon, led to the invasion of the Almo- 
hades. 

6. The Almohades (1146-1248).— The Almohades, or Uni- 
tarians, were a half-religious, half -military sect founded 
about the beginning of the twelfth century. Their avow- 
ed object was to restore the worship of one God and exter- 
minate the Christians. One of their leaders, Abd-el-Mu- 
men, destroyed the Almoravides and captured their city 
of Morocco (1146). He won Tunis and Tripoli from the 
Normans and extended his empire over all northern Africa 
as far as Egypt. He conquered Andalusia and took Gra- 
nada, defeating Alfonso VIII. 

7. Spanish. Knights. — Alfonso had divided Castile and 
Leon among his two sons. The kingdoms remained in- 
dependent for seventy-three years (1157-1230). These di- 

4. Tell of Alfonso VI. and Urraca. What befell Alfonso ? 5. What of Alfonso 
VIII..? Tell of his conquests. 6. Who were the Almohades and what was their 
policy ? Tell of Ahd-el-Mumen. 



286 History of the World. [a.d. 1158-1248 

visions would have lost the Christian cause in Spain were 
it not for the founding of military orders whose chief ob- 
ject was to battle with the Moors. One of the most fa- 
mous was that of Calatrava, founded in 1158. Each king- 
dom or province had its own order devoted to the same 
purpose. The struggle was of similar character through- 
out, and fortune favored now the Christians and again the 
Moors. At the battle of Alarcos (1195) thirty thousand 
Christians perished. 

8. Battle of Tolosa. — Sanclio VII. of Navarre joined 
with the Moors in order to extend his kingdom over all 
Christian Spain. He lost Biscay, Alava, and Guipuzcoa 
to Alfonso IX. of Castile. He afterwards abandoned the 
Moors and joined the Christians in their resistance to the 
great invasion under Mohammed, son of Yacub. Chris- 
tendom, alarmed, sent aid to the Spaniards from all 
sides at the appeal of Pope Innocent III. Sancho, with 
Alfonso of Castile and Pedro of Aragon, beat the invaders 
in a great battle at Tolosa (1212). 

9. Ferdinand III, the Saint. — This battle broke the 
Mussulman power in Spain. All the Christian kingdoms 
of the peninsula profited by it. Castile, the centre, be- 
came the most powerful of the kingdoms under Ferdi- 
nand III. (1217-1252), son of Alfonso of Leon. By the 
death of his father (1230) Ferdinand acquired Leon and 
united it to Castile. He took Cordova from the Moors 
(1235), and, after, various other conquests, captured the 
great city of Seville (1248). Xeres, Cadiz, and other im- 
portant cities followed, until the kingdom of Castile ex- 
tended from the Bay of Biscay to the Straits of Gibraltar. 
Ferdinand was as wise a legislator as he was skilful a 
general. He declared the kingdom indivisible, with right 

7. Tell of the military orders in Spain. 8. What of Sancho VII. ? What oc- 
curred at Tolosa ? 9. What resulted from the battle of Tolosa ? What of Ferdi- 
nand III. ? Describe Ferdinand's character. 



a.d. 1252-1284] The Middle Ages. 287 

of succession by primogeniture. He protected letters and 
arts, and founded the great university of Salamanca. 

10. Alfonso X., the Learned. — His successor, Alfonso X. 
(1252-1284), was constantly at war, either quelling revolts 
or fighting against the Moors. At the instigation of the 
King of Granada the Moors rose in Andalusia and massa- 
cred the Christians (1261). But Alfonso afterwards com- 
pelled them to acknowledge his suzerainty, while James 
I., the Conqueror, King of Catalonia, conquered Murcia. 
Alfonso's ambition and intrigue led to a third invasion 
by the Moors and a revolt under his youngest son, San- 
cho, in which the father was defeated. He was a learned 
prince and left behind him many writings. 

SECTION II. Crusade against the Allrigenses (1208-1229). 

11. The Albigensian Heresy. — From the East through 
the Crusades came the heresy of the Albigenses, so-called 
from the diocese of Albi, where it most prevailed. It was 
a mixture of Arianism and ManichaBisin, admitted the 
existence of good and evil, denied the divinity of Christ, 
rejected the ecclesiastical hierarchy, marriage and the 
other sacraments, and was mixed up with disorders that 
threatened the existence of Christian society. Favored by 
the Languedoc nobles, especially by Eaymond VI., Count 
of Toulouse, the heresy spread rapidly in that region ; the 
churches were deserted and the clergy exposed to outrage 
and contempt. St. Dominic preached against it with- 
out effect. Count Eaymond was excommunicated by the 
legate of the Holy See, Peter of Castelnau, and the legate 
was assassinated by one of the count's followers. Pope 
Innocent III. thereupon excommunicated Eaymond and 

10. Tell of Alfonso X. and the chief events of his reign. 11. What was the 
heresy of the Albigenses and how did it originate ? Who protected the heresy ? 
Who preached against it 1 What action did the pope take 1 



288 History of tee World. [ a .d. 1208-1223 

ordered a crusade to be preached against the heretics. 
Within a few weeks fifty thousand Christian warriors re- 
sponded to the call (1208). 

12. Simon de Montfort. — Simon de Montfort, a hero of 
the fourth Crusade, took command. Eaymond asked and 
obtained reconciliation with the Church, thereby saying 
his dominions. The chief cities of the Albigenses easily 
fell to the Crusaders Eaymond's treachery renewed a 
contest which would otherwise have ended. Simon gained 
a brilliant victory at Castelnandary (1212). Eaymond 
sought the aid of Pedro II. of Aragon. But another 
victory at Mnret (1213), in which Pedro fell, decided 
Eaymond's fate. 

13. The (Ecumenical Council of Lateran conferred the 
county of Toulouse on Simon (1215). Eaymond and his 
son held out. In besieging Toulouse Simon was slain, and 
the army of the Crusaders retreated (1218). His son, 
Am amy, ceded his title to Louis VIII. of France. Louis 
captured the strong city of Avignon and soon conquered 
all the country up to Toulouse. Eaymond was succeeded 
by his son, Eaymond VII. The death of Louis (1226) 
gave him a respite, but his cause was lost. He became 
reconciled to the Church, and, by the treaty of Meaux, < 
ceded Lower Languedoc to St. Louis and the county of 
Venaissin to the Holy See,, retaining the county of Tou- 
louse. The heresy died out soon after. 

SECTION III. Crusades against tne Pagans of tne Baltic (1204-1237). 

14. Livonia and Esthonia converted. — The north of Eu- 
rope, from the Vistula to the Gulf of Finland, had re- 
mained pagan and resisted all the Christian advances. 
Pope Celestine III. preached a crusade against the pagan 

12. Who led the Crusade % Where was Raymond defeated 1 13. What befell 
Simon de Montfort ? What followed on his death ? What came of the heresy ? 
14. What part of Europe remained pagan ? 



a. d. 1201-1214] The Middle Ages. 289 

tribes, and the cause was taken up by the Germans. Al- 
bert of Alperden, a canon of Bremen, founded Kiga, of 
which he was made bishop (1201). He divided Livonia 
into fiefs and gave them to such German nobles as were 
strong enough to keep them. By originating the " Knights 
of Livonia " he organized a standing army for the defence 
of the country. They received a third of Livonia, and in 
a few years paganism was driven out. The country became 
a fief and principality of the German Empire. The 
Esthonians, who dwelt farther north, soon succumbed, and 
idolatry disappeared. 

15. Conversion of the Prussians. — The country between 
the Vistula and the Niemen was occupied by the Prussians. 
They were a warlike and barbarous people, very stubborn 
to yield to the faith. They martyred their first apostle, 
St. Adalbert, Bishop of Prague (907). They remained pa- 
gans up to the beginning of the thirteenth century. In 
1214 Christian was made first bishop of Prussia under the 
protection of a Polish prince of Culm. A crusade was 
then organized against the pagan people. The country of 
Culm was given to the Knights of the Teutonic Order. 
The struggle lasted fifty years. The Prussians were aided 
by the Eussians and Lithuanians, who remained idolaters 
till the end of the fourteenth century. All Prussia be- 
came Christian in 1283. 

What measures were taken to convert the north ? Who were the Knights of 
Livonia? 15. What was the character -of the Prussians? How long were they 
pagan 'I Who was their first bishop ? When was Prussia converted 



290 History of the World. [ a .d. 1060-1108 



CHAPTEK IV. 

FHANCE, ENGLAND, AND IKELAND. 
SECTION I. Progress of Royalty in France ; Philip I. (1060-1108). 

1. Rivalry of Erance and England. — Philip I., son of 
Henry I., ascended the French throne at the age of seven 
and reigned forty-eight years. He was indolent and in- 
triguing, and only waged one war in person to secure 
Flanders to the grandson of his uncle and guardian, Bald- 
win, Count of Flanders ; and in this he was beaten at 
Cassel (1071). Under him began the rivalry with England 
which led to the wars between that country and France. 
He was jealous of his powerful vassal, William, Duke of 
Normandy, who had gained the English throne. He was 
a party to all the plots and revolts against William's power 
in his Norman domains. A coarse jest of his led to Wil- 
liam's last invasion, when he burnt Mantes and met his 
death there (1087). Eid of him, Philip embroiled himself 
in ecclesiastical troubles, but finally died reconciled to the 
Church. 

2. Louis VI. (1108-1137).— His successor, Louis le Gros, 
was a man of very different calibre. Resolved on making 
his authority felt, he began by putting a stop to the rava- 
ges of the nobles, many of whom were little better than 
brigands. He made himself respected by the turbulent 
barons and the powerful Duke of Aquitaine in the south, 
and in the north secured the suzerainty of the county of 
Flanders. He conferred the investiture of it on William 
Cliton, son of Robert Curthose, eldest son of William 
the Conqueror. Henry I. of England, who had dispos- 

1. What was the character of Philip 1. 1 With whom did he war ? Who was 
Ms great rival ? 2. What was the character of Louis Yl. ? Whom did he 
subdue ? 



a.d. 1108-1124] The Middle A ges. 291 

sessed his eldest brother, declared war against the King 
of France for thus aiding the prince, and defeated him at 
Brenneville. Pope Calixtus II., then a refugee in France, 
reconciled the rivals. The Emperor Henry V., however, 
warred on Louis for protecting the pope. Louis called to 
his aid all the vassals and soldiers of his kingdom (1124), 
and the emperor withdrew in alarm. Louis did much to- 
wards establishing the stability of his kingdom, and he 
found great assistance in the wise counsels of his friend 
Suger, the abbot of St. Denis. 

3. Emancipation of the Towns; Municipal Cities, etc. — 
During all the turmoils of the eleventh and twelfth cen- 
turies the peoples of the great cities, beginning to feel 
their power, were gradually forcing themselves into free- 
dom and communal liberties. These cities and towns 
were the centres of industrial and commercial enterprise, 
which it was necessary to protect from the lawless inroads 
of the nobles. In Italy and southern France some cities 
still retained much of the old characteristics of the Eo- 
man municipality or form of civic self-government. These 
cities were governed by magistrates elected by the citizens 
and appointed to the various offices. Out of these in 
Italy was formed the Lombard League, which broke the 
power of Frederick Barbarossa ; and in France, Flanders, 
and Germany there were several such. 

4. The Communes. — In addition to these rose up the 
communes— associations of the inhabitants of a district, 
who, when occasion called, met in the church or on the 
public square for the defence of their franchises and lib- 
erties as guaranteed by charter. The charter was the 
written record of their liberties granted by the lord and 
the conditions under which it was granted. Each com- 

How did Louis become embroiled with England? What other foes had he ? 
3. Describe the advance of the people during this period. Tell how the cities 
grew. 4. What were the communes ? How were the communes protected ? 



292 History of the World. [ad. 1137-1180 

mime had a city-hall, a special seal, and a belfry with 
clock-tower. In the belfry was a signal-man, who rang 
the hours of the assembly, and when danger threatened 
called the commune to arms. 

5. Growth of the Middle Classes. — There were also cities 
without charter or independent administration, but to 
which, for certain motives, important franchises and pri- 
vileges were granted by the king or suzerain. These were 
the privileged cities, or commonalities, which, under royal 
or other high favor, rapidly grew in wealth, numbers, and 
power. The communes, when not oppressed by the nobles, 
were often the centres of internal discord. So from the 
thirteenth century out they gradually surrendered their 
charters to place themselves under the royal protection. 
Out of these citizens grew up the middle class, or burgh- 
ers, who were destined in the future to secure the liber- 
ties of all the people. 

6. Louis VII. (1137-1180); Henry II. of England.— 
Louis VII. began by intermeddling in ecclesiastical affairs. 
Refusing to acknowledge the Archbishop of Bourges ap- 
pointed by the pope, he was led into a war notorious for 
the burning of Vitry. Remorse led him to undertake the 
second Crusade, wherein he lost his army. The kingdom 
was still more distressed by Louis' quarrels with his queen, 
Eleanor of Gnienne, from whom he obtained a divorce. 
She then married Henry Plantagenet (1152), who two years 
later was proclaimed king of England. By marriage and 
inheritance all western France, save Brittany, fell to Henry, 
and he married his son Geoffrey to Constance, the heiress 
of that duchy. Louis favored the revolts of Henry's chil- 
dren and gave protection to St. Thomas a Becket, the ex- 
iled Archbishop of Canterbury. 

5. What were the privileged cities, and what class grew out of them ? 6. De- 
scribe the reign of Louis Y1I. Whom did his wife many ? What came of the 
marriage ? What occurred between Louis and Henry II. ? 



a.d. 1180-1223] The Middle Ages. 293 

7. Philip II. (1180-1223).— Philip II., surnamed Augus- 
tus, was a boy of fifteen when he ascended the throne, but 
was endowed with great gifts. He followed up the quarrels 
with the kings of England. A copartner of Eichard Oceur 
de Lion in the Crusade, he suddenly left the East. On his 
return to France he took advantage of Eichard's absence 
to attempt the conquest of Normandy. But when Eichard 
came back he easily reconquered it all and obtained a truce 
of five years by the mediation of Innocent III. At his 
death (1199) his brother John, to secure the crown from 
his nephew, Arthur of Brittany, had Arthur murdered. 
The deed created general horror, and Philip summoned 
John, his vassal of Normandy, to appear before the court 
of peers (1203). John, refusing, was condemned to forfeit 
all his French possessions. Philip conquered Normandy 
and added it to the crown of France three hundred years 
after its conquest by the Normans. Touraine, Maine, An- 
jou, and Poitou fell in quick succession, and soon but a 
third of his French possessions remained to the English 
king. 

8. Triumph and Reforms of Philip II. — To save his crown, 
which was offered to the King of France, John declared 
himself a vassal of the Holy See. With the Emperor 
Otho IV., the Count of Flanders, and others he formed 
a league against Philip. But he himself was beaten near 
Angers by Prince Louis, and his allies routed by Philip 
at Bouvines (1214). Philip was equally successful in regu- 
lating the internal affairs of his kingdom. He gave the 
sanction of law to the decision of the court of peers ; he 
established an efficient police for the maintenance of order ; 
he created seventy-eight provosts to control the affairs 
of the army, finances, and justice, under the supervision 

7. What was the character of Philip II. 1 With whom did he quarrel and what 
canio of the quarrel ? Why was Prince Arthur murdered and what resulted from 
the murder ? 8. Describe the reforms instituted by Philip II. 



294 History of the World. [ a .d. 1223-1270 

of bailiffs. Thus did lie strengthen the royal authority 
against the great nobles. 

9. Louis VIII. (1223-1226). — Louis maintained against 
the English the conquests of bis father and carried on a 
successful crusade against the Albigenses, when he suddenly 
died in Auvergne. 

10. St. Louis (1226-1270).— Louis IX., a boy of eleven, 
was protected in his minority by his mother, Blanche of 
Castile, as regent. She compelled the great nobles who 
had revolted to return to their allegiance. The treaty of 
Paris terminated the Albigensian war (1229), which for 
twenty years had desolated the southern provinces. Louis, 
once he assumed the reins of government, completed his 
mother's work. He subdued the revolted nobles and com- 
pelled England, who aided them, to sign peace. Louis' ex- 
ploits against the infidels have been told elsewhere. At 
the news of his captivity all France was filled with mourn- 
ing. The peasants took up arms to rescue bim, but com- 
mitted so many excesses at Paris and Orleans that Blanche 
had forcibly to suppress them. 

11. At her death Louis hastened back to his kingdom. 
He enacted many wise laws. He put a stop to the pri- 
vate wars of the nobles and abolished the proof of inno- 
cence by duel. He made it easy for petitions to reach the 
throne, and reserved to himself the right of coining money. 
To superintend the provosts and bailiffs he sent "royal in- 
quisitors " into the provinces. He was in person open to 
the appeal of the meanest of his subjects, and was chosen 
arbiter in many foreign disputes. 

SECTION II. England. 

12. William the Conqueror (1066-1087).— The fall of 

9. Tell of Louis Till. 10. What of Blanche of Castile ? What did the treaty 
of Paris decide 1 How did St. Louis govern 1 11. What happened on the death 
of Blanche ? What were the characteristics of Louis' home government ? 



a.d. 1066-1100] The Middle Ages. 295 

Harold at Hastings (1066) gave England over to William, 
Duke of Normandy. After his coronation lie secured his 
power by dividing England up among his followers. He 
made Scotland bow to his suzerainty (1073). He was in a 
constant state of quarrel with Philip I. of France over his 
Norman possessions, and met his death while besieging 
Mantes. To his eldest son, Robert, he left the duchy of 
Normandy ; to the second, William, the crown of England ; 
and to the third, Henry, little more than the prediction 
that he would one day inherit both his brothers' fortunes. 

13. William Rufus. — William II., called Eufus from his 
red hair, had to defend his crown against Robert. To secure 
the Anglo-Saxons' favor he gave them back their ancient 
liberties. Robert was defeated in Normandy, and pawned 
his duchy to William in order to raise funds to join in the 
first Crusade. After the death of his adviser, Archbishop 
Lanfranc, he gave himself up to cruelty, exactions, and in- 
dulgence in his passions. He took back the liberties he 
gave and loaded the people with taxes. The Church, too, 
was oppressed ; bishoprics were sold to the highest bidders 
or held vacant, and their revenues turned into the royal 
treasury. St. Anselm, the venerable Archbishop of Canter- 
bury, was exiled for daring to admonish the king. The 
country was at last relieved of him by death. He was 
shot while hunting, by Walter Tyrrel, one of his knights 
(1100). 

14. Henry I. (1100-1135).— Robert was away at the Cru- 
sade when William died, so his brother Henry, called the 
Scholar, had himself crowned king. To secure his popu- 
larity he, on the day of his coronation, published a charter 
restoring the ancient liberties of the people and making 
the Church free. St. Anselm was recalled from exile, and 

12. How did William the Conqueror secure his power ? How did he divide 
his domains? 13. Describe the reign of William Eufus. What was his end? 
14. How did Henry I. come to the throne ? What was Henry's charter % 



296 History of the World. [a.d. 1106-1154 

Henry married Matilda, daughter of Malcolm of Scotland. 
When Eobert returned to claim his inheritance he found 
Henry in secure possession. He was taken prisoner at 
Tinchebrai (1106) and shut up in Cardiff Castle, where he 
lingered for twenty-eight years. His son, William Cliton, 
sought the protection of France, but Henry was victorious 
oyer all. His declining years were clouded by the drown- 
ing of his son. His daughter Matilda married the Em- 
peror Henry V., and, after his death, Geoffrey, Count of 
Anjou, surnamed Plantagenet from the sprig of broom 
which was the family device. Henry made all the princi- 
pal barons swear fealty to Matilda. The latter portion 
of his reign was oppressive and tyrannical. 

15. Stephen of Blois (1135-1154) and Matilda; Civil 
War. — On the death of Henry, Stephen of Blois, his neph- 
ew and grandson of William the Conqueror, seized the 
throne. The barons in turn swore fealty to him. They 
were won over by the gifts he lavished on them, but fell 
from him when the gifts ceased. David, King of Scot- 
land, took up the cause of Matilda, crossed the border, 
and ravaged the northern shires (1137). He was defeated 
by an uprising of the people, under the leadership of the 
Archbishop of York, at the famous battle of the " Stan- 
dard." Matilda landed in England and found such a fol- 
lowing that Stephen was beaten and taken prisoner at Lin- 
coln (1141). Matilda's pride and violence so angered the 
citizens of London that they rose and drove her out. Ste- 
phen regained his liberty, and all England was devastated 
by a prolonged civil war. On the death of his eldest son 
Stephen acknowledged the young Prince Henry Plantage- 
net as heir, and the war ended (1153). 

16. Henry II. (1154-1189) ; St. Thomas a Becket— When 

How was Robert treated 1 Describe Henry's reign. Wbat of Matilda ? 
15. Who succeeded Henry ? What followed Stephen's accession ? Describe the 
struggle. How did it end ? 



a.d. 1154-1170] The Middle Ages. 297 

Henry ascended the English throne he was one of the most 
powerful monarchs in Europe, owning not only England 
but nearly all western France. He was a man of great 
ability, great duplicity, and strong passions. He raised 
his chancellor, friend, and favorite, Thomas a Becket, to 
the see of Canterbury. Thomas demurred, but Henry in- 
sisted, regarding him as a creature of his own. Once 
archbishop Thomas threw off all courtliness and became 
a sincere churchman and defender of the dignity of his 
office and the liberties of the Church and of the people. 
The king's friendship changed to hate. His wish was to 
get complete power over the Church and bring all juris- 
diction into the lay courts. 

17. Martyrdom of St. Thomas a Becket. — A long strug- 
gle ensued between the king and the archbishop, which 
for the most part Thomas had to sustain unaided by the 
courtier-prelates who filled the sees of England. He was 
compelled to fly the kingdom, but the hearts of the peo- 
ple followed him in his exile. On his return, after a 
pretended reconciliation on Henry's part, the pojmlace 
rushed to meet him wherever he passed. He excommuni- 
cated some of the bishops who had violated the ecclesias- 
tical laws. Some passionate words let fall from Henry 
were caught up by a few of his knights. Eour of them 
immediately set out, and, arriving at Canterbury, found 
the archbishop assisting at Vespers. There they murdered 
him at the foot of the altar (December 29, 1170). 

SECTION III. Ireland. 

18. Ancient Ireland. — It was during the reign of Henry 
that the first Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland took place. 
Ireland was governed by the clan or family system, each clan 

16. What was the domain of Hemy II. ? Whom did he make chancellor, and 
with what result ? 17. Describe the struggle between the king and the arch- 
bishop. How did it end ? 



298 History of the World. [ad. 432-1014 

holding its territory in common. The laws were just and 
wise, had they only been observed, but the clans were in a 
constant state of quarrel with one another. There were 
five great divisions, Ulster, Munster, Leinster, Connaught, 
and Meath, each of which was governed by a king, or righ 
(pronounced ree), the King of Meath enjoying a nominal 
supremacy. The laws were administered by the brehons, 
or judges, who with the bards and druids constituted the 
privileged classes. 

19. Conversion of Ireland. — St. Patrick (432-465) was 
the great missionary and apostle of the Irish people. He 
preached the faith to them with marvellous success. They 
embraced it with fervor, and before his death (March 17, 
465) he saw the whole island Christian. Churches and 
monasteries multiplied rapidly, and Ireland became a great 
seat of Christian piety and learning, and famed as such 
through all Europe. 

20. Danish Invasions. — This happy state of things was 
broken in upon by the Danish invaders, who for more 
than two centuries ravaged the land and built themselves 
strongholds at the mouths of the principal rivers. They 
were defeated by Malachi, King of Meath, at Tara. Brian 
Boru, King of Munster, made an alliance with the Danes, 
and, defeating Malachi, took part of his territory (1002). 
Attaining the supremacy, he had to contend against his 
late friends, the Danes, who made a united effort for the 
conquest of the island, but were wholly routed at Clon- 
tarf (1014), where Brian also perished. 

21. Anglo-Norman Invasion. — Freed from the Danish 
invader, Ireland soon became an object of interest to the 
Anglo-Normans. The dissensions of the Irish chieftains 
afforded an easy excuse for the interference of Henry. A 

18. How was ancient Ireland governed ? 19. By whom was Ireland converted ? 
How did the Irish receive the faith 1 20. Tell of the Danish invasions. What 
happened at Clontarf ? 21. Who next invaded Ireland 1 



a. d. 1014-1171] The Middle Ages. 299 

band of knights was sent over to defend the cause of 
MacMurrough, King of Leinster, who had done homage 
to Henry. They seized on the strong places, and their 
warlike science and defensive armor enabled them to repel 
with ease the attacks of the natives. Richard, Earl of 
Pembroke (Strongbow), was their leader. He married 
MacMurrough's daughter, and on the death of the king 
became King of Leinster. 

22. Statute of Kilkenny. — Henry himself, at the head of 
an army, landed in Waterford (1171) and remained in the 
country five months. The subsequent history for a long 
period is one series of revolts of the Irish, accompanied 
by varying success. More Anglo-Normans were drawn 
in. The people suffered terribly. The chieftains fought 
against each other as much as against the invader. So 
wretched was the state of affairs that in the reign of Ed- 
ward II. the people petitioned for the enjoyment of English 
laws. The resident Anglo-Norman families gradually, in 
their descendants, adopted the language, customs, dress, 
and clan system of the Irish ; so much so that the Statute 
of Kilkenny was enacted (1367), which forbade the people 
of English race to use the Brehon law, to intermarry with 
the Irish, to speak the Gaelic language or use the Irish 
dress — in short, to have anything to do with the Irish save 
as a subject people. 

SECTION IV. Struggles in England; Magna Charta. 

23. Henry II. and his Sons. — Henry's sons rebelled 
against him. Fearful of losing his crown, and of the 
anger of the people at the murder of St. Thomas a 
Becket, he underwent public penance, restored the lib- 
erties of the Church, and declared himself a vassal of 

What success attended the invasion 1 22. Describe the condition of the coun- 
try. What was the Statute of Kilkenny and why was it enacted ? 23. How did 
Henry act after the death of St. Thomas ? 



300 History of the World. [ a .d. 1174-1199 

the Holy See. His sons, aided by Louis VII., warred 
against him in France. The Scots invaded England. 
The King of Scotland was defeated and taken prisoner, 
and only set free on acknowledging the suzerainty of 
England. Henry was also successful in France (1174), 
but his wife, ■ Eleanor, fanned the flame of revolt 
among the sons. Two came to sudden deaths. Eichard 
Coeur de Lion, aided by Philip, raised the last revolt, and 
Henry was compelled to submit to most humiliating terms. 
Seeing the name of his youngest and favorite son, John, 
among the rebels, the old man's heart broke, and he died 
cursing the day of his birth and the sons he left behind 
him. 

24. Richard I. (1189-1199); John (1199-1216).— Rich- 
ard inherited all his father's dominions. To John was 
given Ireland. Eichard set out for the Crusades, taxing 
his subjects and selling his suzerainty over Scotland in 
order to raise money for the purpose. His history in the 
East and subsequent adventures have been given elsewhere. 
On his return to England, whence he ousted his brother 
John, he easily reconquered his French domains. He 
perished in a miserable quarrel about a treasure discovered 
on an estate belonging to his domain, and to which he 
claimed sole right. 

25. John's troubled Reign! — John hastened to secure the 
throne claimed by his nephew Arthur, supported by the 
King of France. Capturing Arthur, he had him put to 
death, as before shown, and lost his French possessions to 
Philip. He next embroiled himself with the Church, hold- 
ing the see of Canterbury for a favorite against the law- 
fully elected archbishop, Stephen Langton (1207). He de- 
spoiled Canterbury and exiled its clergy. Pope Innocent 

What of Henry's sons? What of the Scotch invasion? How did the reign 
end ? 24. Who succeeded Henry ? Describe Richard's reign. 25. How did 
John open his reign ? 



a.d. 1199-1216] The Middle Ages. 301 

III. laid the kingdom under an interdict, suspending all 
the offices of religion save the baptism of infants and 
administration of the Viaticum to the dying (1208). John, 
moved to still greater fury, became a scourge to his king- 
dom. He was excommunicated (1209), and in revenge 
sought alliance with the Albigenses and the King of Mo- 
rocco. He was put under the ban of Christendom and 
declared deposed by the pope, his subjects being released 
from their fealty (1212). Philip undertook to execute the 
sentence and invade England. John at last yielded, ac- 
cepted Langton as archbishop, and became reconciled with 
the Holy See and with his subjects (1213). Immediately 
after he formed a league against Philip, but it was defeat- 
ed, his allies at Bouvines and himself at Angers (1214). 

26. Magna Charta (1215). — John returned to England 
a beaten man, only to find the country up in arms against 
him. Prelates and barons, weary of tyranny and exac- 
tions, had united to force from the king a restoration of 
the country's liberties. He promised to restore the char- 
ter of Henry L, but soon after broke his word. The ba- 
rons marched against him, and John was compelled to 
sign at Runnymede Magna Charta, or the Great Charter 
(June 15, 1215). This is regarded as the basis of the 
English Constitution. It ensures freedom and liberty of 
election to the Church. It cut down the most dangerous 
of the monarch's feudal rights. No tax was to be levied 
without the consent of the great national council. Freed- 
men were to be tried by their peers. 

27. Death of John. — Again John proved false to his oath, 
and, deceiving Innocent III., got permission to retract his 
signature to the Charter. He ravaged the country with 
bands of foreign mercenaries. The barons offered the 

What sentence did John call down on himself? How fared matters in 
England 1 26. What action did the barons take 1 What was Magna Charta, and 
what did it secure ? 27. How did John a,ct? 



302 History of the World. [ A .d. 1216-1234 

crown to Louis, the Dauphin, who entered London. John, 
hastening to meet him, lost his baggage and treasures in 
the Wash and died three days after (October 19, 1216). 

28. Henry III. (1216-1272).— John's eldest son, Henry, 
a boy of ten years, succeeded. The aversion to foreigners 
lost the cause for Prince Louis, who was deserted by the ba- 
rons, especially when they learned of the defeat of his army 
at Lincoln and destruction of his fleet off Dover. He has- 
tened back to France, and Earl Pembroke was made re- 
gent and guardian of the young king. In this office he was 
succeeded by Hubert de Burgo, the gallant defender of Do- 
ver Castle and winner of the first naval engagement be- 
tween the English and French fleets. Henry, when he 
assumed the reins of government (1234), favored the 
Frenchmen who had accompanied his queen, Eleanor, to 
England. Losses in battle against the French, the im- 
position of arbitrary taxes, and frequent violation of the 
Great Charter soon lost to the king the confidence of his 
people. 

29. Revolt of the Barons. — A famine occurred to cap the 
discontent, which found a leader in Simon de Montfort, 
Earl of Leicester, son of the conqueror of the Albigenses 
and husband of the king's sister. He was an able politi- 
cian and general. Setting himself at the head of the barons, 
he compelled Henry to convoke a national council at Ox- 
ford, where the king swore to observe Magna Charta. A 
committee was formed to draw up the Statutes of Oxford, 
which so curtailed the power of the king as to merge it 
in the national council, or Parliament. The Parliament 
was to assemble at least once every three years. To the 
committee was delegated the chief executive power. Its 
orders were binding under pain of death, whence its title 

28. Who succeeded John ? What came of the Trench invasion ? Why were 
the English restive under Henry ? 29. Who led the revolt ? What were the 
Statutes of Oxford ? What is meant by the Mad Parliament ? 



a.d. 1234-1265] The Middle Ages. 303 

of the Mad Parliament. A reaction set in in Henry's 
favor. He appealed to the King of France as umpire. 
St. Louis decided that the royal prerogatives should be 
restored, and that the king, on his side, should grant a 
general amnesty and maintain Magna Charta. 

30. Simon de Montfort and Prince Edward. — Simon de 
Montfort Avas not satisfied with this decision. He stood 
by the Statutes of Oxford and stirred up a new revolt.. 
Henry III. and his young son Edward met the barons 
at Lewes (1264). The impetuosity of Edward lost the day 
to the royalists, and Henry, his brother Eichard, and the 
prince were taken prisoners. Simon now ruled England 
over the weak king. In 1265 he originated the English 
Parliament as it now stands by summoning to the council 
representatives from each shire, borough, and city of the 
land. Thus the lower house, or Commons, came into 
being. 

31. Battle of Evesham (1265). — Disaffection soon arose. 
Prince Edward escaped and gathered a new army. Simon 
met him near Evesham and placed the king in the front 
rank of his army. The king was wounded, and only 
saved from death by his son Edward, who gained a com- 
plete victory. Simon fell with two of his sons, and but 
ten of the revolting barons escaped with their lives. Hen- 
ry was reinstated in authority, and Edward departed for 
the Crusade of St. Louis, where he gained glory for his 
exploits. 

Tell of the decision of St. Louis. 30. What course did Simou take ? What 
happened at Lewes 1 What did Simon originate ? 31. Describe the battle of 
Evesham and its result. 



304 History of the World. [a.d. 1093-1250 

OHAPTEE V. 
THE SCANBIN AVIANS, SLAVS, AND MONGOLS. 

SECTION I. Scandinavian Kingdoms. 

1. Norway. — The Scandinavian kingdoms that received 
Christianity in the preceding epoch advanced in civiliza- 
tion and soon became part of the great Christian family. 
The Norwegians, though the last of the race to embrace 
the faith, became the first in zeal and fervor. Their kings 
were, for the most part, warriors. One of them, Magnus 
III. (1093-1103), undertaking the conquest of Ireland, was 
overcome and slain at Downpatrick. His son, Sigurd I., 
married a daughter of Murroch O'Brian, King of Minister. 

2. With a fleet of sixty vessels, carrying an army of ten 
thousand men, he set out for the Crusades and gave pow- 
erful aid to Baldwin. Leaving his army in the East, he 
returned home. After him came fifty years of anarchy to 
Norway. King Sverrer (1178-1202) finally restored order, 
and died literally on his throne, as became a king. His 
grandson, Haco V. (1217-1263), completed the work of 
his grandsire, subdued all factions, favored commerce, and 
built a powerful fleet. He died while ravaging Scotland, 
and the royal dynasty became extinct in 1319. 

3. Sweden. — Sweden, rent by domestic strife, stood long 
aloof from the rest of Europe. Christianity made its 
way slowly in the north (Sweden proper), but more easily 
in the south (Grothia). Each division elected kings in 
turn '(1133-1250). Sverker, the first king elected by the 
Goths, organized the Christian Church in his dominions 

1. Tell of the Norwegians. How did they fare in Ireland ? 2. What expedi- 
tion did Sigurd undertake ? What followed on his death 1 In whom did the 
dynasty become extinct 1 3. How did Christianity spread in Sweden ? 



a.d. 1250-1290] The Middle Ages. 305 

with the aid of Nicholas Breakspere, cardinal legate, after- 
wards Adrian IV. St. Eric was the second king, and the 
author of the "Laws of God and of St. Eric." He sub- 
dued the pagan Finns and founded among them the city 
of Abo. 

4. Charles, his successor and son of Sverker, founded the 
archbishopric of Upsal and left the throne to Canute, son 
of St. Eric. "With the fourth king both families became 
extinct, and the crown passed to the Folkung family in 
the person of the young Waldemar, a relative of St. Eric 
on his mother's side. Birger, his father, and regent of 
the kingdom, completed the conquest of Finland, founded 
Stockholm, constructed roads, and reformed the judiciary. 
He died in 1266, and Waldemar, unequal to his charge, was 
dethroned by his brother Magnus (1275-1290). 

5. Denmark. — Sweyn, nephew of Canute the Great, after 
a troubled reign (1047-1074), thought to end disturbance by 
arranging that his sons should succeed one another on 
the throne. Five did so succeed, but were very different 
in character and in their government. Troubles of all 
kinds distracted the kingdom until the accession of Wal- 
demar I. (1157-1181). 

6. Waldemar the Great— Waldemar, surnamed the Great, 
restored order, aided by Eskil, Archbishop of Lund, and 
Absalon, or Axel, Bishop of Eoskilde and chancellor of the 
kingdom. With Henry the Lion of Saxony he defeated the 
Slavs of Vandalia, who always threatened the kingdom, 
slew their king, ISTiclot, and concluded an honorable treaty 
with his successor, Prebislas. He subdued the whole coast 
and made the Vandals Christians. He founded Copenha- 
gen and drew up the wise Christian laws that form the 
code of Scania and Zealand. He was a great patron of 

For what was King Eric famous ? 4. Into whose hands did the crown pass ? 
Tell of Birger and his work. 5. Describe events in Denmark. 6. Tell of Wal- 
demar the Great and his achievements. 



30G History of the World. [a.d. 1181-1286 

learning, which lie helped to spread throughout his king- 
dom. 

7. Successors of Waldemar the Great. — His sons, Canute 
VI. and Waldemar II., the Victorious, consolidated his 
conquests. The second Waldemar compelled the dukes 
of Mecklenburg and the two Pomeranias to pay homage, 
made peace between Sweden and Norway, and led a suc- 
cessful expedition against the pagans of Esthonia. He 
founded the cities of Eevel and Narva.' In 1223 he was 
seized by a vassal and confined for three years. On being 
ransomed he lost several of his conquests and was defeated 
in two pitched battles. His son, Eric VI., who succeeded 
him, was murdered at the instigation of his brother Abel, 
and Abel himself was treacherously slain after a reign of 
two years (1252). Christopher I. (1252-1259), also a son 
of Waldemar II., was humbled by the King of Norway and 
regent of Sweden, and fell at last by poison. His son, 
Eric VII., after a troubled reign, was also slain (1286). 

SECTION II. The Slavonian Tribes. 

8. Condition of the Slavs.— The Slavonian tribes spread 
along the coasts of the Baltic from the Danish frontier 
to the great lakes of Finland. They were bloodthirsty 
idolaters. They formed no state, properly speaking. The 
central Slavs had become Christian. The Czechs of Bohe- 
mia blend with the history of Germany. Of the south- 
ern Slavs, who were also Christians, the Wallachians 
formed the kingdom of Bulgaria, the Servians gave their 
princes the title of king, and emperor even, and the Croa- 
tians formed the kingdom of Dalmatia. All freed them- 
selves from the Byzantine G-oths only to become subjects 
of Hungary, or still later of the Turks. 

7. How did Walderaar's successors act? What befell the sons of Waldemar 
II.? 8. Who were the Slavs? How were the7 divided? To whom did they 
become subject ? 



a.d. 1058-1081] The Middle A ges. 307 

9. Three Slavonic states demand special attention : Hun- 
gary, which is Slavonic save for the one hundred and eight 
Magyar families constituting the nobility ; Poland, wholly 
Slavonic and Catholic like Hungary ; and Eussia, Slavonic 
with a mingling of Scandinavians. The political head of 
the Eussians was a grand duke ; their spiritual head the 
patriarch of Constantinople, who with his flock was drift- 
ing from Eome. 

10. Hungary. — The descendants of Arpad were alone pri- 
vileged to wear the crown of St. Stephen, which was often 
a source of bloody contention. Towards the close of the 
eleventh century St. Ladislaus and Coloman vanquished the 
Greeks of theJDanube and secured a southern frontier by 
subjugating the Croatians and adding Dalmatia to their 
crown. They settled various tribes who consented to con- 
version on the frontiers, and these always bore the first 
shock of invasion. There were many contentions for the 
throne, and much violence wrought to the kingdom in 
consequence. The folly of Andrew II. (1205-1235) in 
signing the Golden Bull, which virtually set all the power 
in the hands of the nobles, gave form to anarchy. 

11. Poland.— Boleslaus the Bold (1058-1081) assumed the 
title of king without the permission of the Emperor Henry 
IV., his suzerain. He was a passionate and cruel man. 
Stanislaus, Bishop of Cracow, having ventured to remon- 
strate with him, he stabbed him while saying Mass. For 
this he was excommunicated by Pope Gregory VII. His 
subjects rose up and drove him out, and he ended his days 
in a cloister. His successors contented themselves with 
the title of duke, and aided greatly in converting the 
Prussians, Pomeranians, and other Baltic tribes consid- 
ered as subjects of Poland. 

9. Describe the three chief Slayonic states. How was Eussia ruled? 10. De- 
scribe the progress of events in Hungary. 11. Describe the reign of Boleslaus 
the Bold. How did his successors behave ? 



308 History of the World. [a.d. 1102-1202 

12. Polish. Dissensions. — Boleslaus III. (1102-1138), aided 
by the Prince of Pomerania, himself became the catechist 
of his pagan subjects. His reign was fortunate. At his 
death he divided his vast realms among his five sons, re- 
serving for the ablest the city of Cracow, with a certain 
supremacy over the others. This division was the cause 
of dissensions that distracted Poland for sixty-five years 
(1138-1202). 

13. Schism in Russia. — The Grand Duke Jaroslav (1019- 
1054), son of St. Vladimir, was absolute master of. Russia. 
In his will he divided it up among his five sons, the holder 
of Kief alone retaining the title of grand duke and the 
position of commander-in-chief of the RiTssian armies. 
The result of the division was three centuries of civil 
strife. Just at this time came a devastating wave from 
the East in the shape of the Polovtsi, or Comans, who 
drank blood and fed on raw meat. They came from the 
steppes of Turkistan and took up their quarters on the 
Don. The Uzbeks and other tribes roamed at their will 
on the plains of the Dnieper and the Dniester. On the 
Volga the Eastern Bulgarians, who were zealous Moham- 
medans, maintained their independence. The Pinns, Li- 
vonians, Lithuanians, Prussians, all obstinate pagans, men- 
aced Russia on the west. The Russian Church was feeble 
and had clone little in the way of converting those on its 
borders. Their priesthood married and had as little learn- 
ing as zeal. They had followed the schism of Constanti- 
nople and were extremely bigoted in their views. Thus 
Russia was severed in spirit from Catholic Europe just 
when she most needed its aid. 

14. The supremacy of the grand dukes of Kief was main- 
tained, nominally at least, for about a century amid inces- 

12. What caused dissensions in Poland 1 13. How did Javoslay partition Rus- 
sia ? What followed from the partition ? By whom was Russia invaded 1 What 
..vas the character of the Russian Church 1 



a.d. 1157-1163] The Middle Ages. 309 

sant civil strife and struggles with the barbarians. From 
1157 the city of Kief had the city of Vladimir for a rival. 
The masters of each assumed the title of grand duke. 
During the incessant contentions several cities took govern- 
ment into their own hands and set up as republics, Nov- 
gorod being one. In 1212 the monarchy had disappeared. 

SECTION III. The Mongols and the Empire of Jenghis Khan. 

15. Jenghis Khan. — The nomad tribes of the Mongol or 
yellow race had wandered for centuries on the high, cold 
table-lands of Central Asia. A pastoral people, they built 
no cities and kept remote from the influence of civiliza- 
tion. About 11G3 Temuchin, son of the Khan (chief) Ba- 
hadur, was born of one of these tribes. At thirteen the 
death of his father left him master of forty thousand 
families. A revolt forced him to fly. Gathering a band 
and gaining allies, he took summary vengeance on his re- 
volted subjects. They then submitted and most of the 
Mongols hailed him as chief. Those who refused were 
beaten into submission. Swearing to share with his fol- 
lowers the bitterness as well as the sweets of life, they 
proclaimed him their great chief, Jenghis Khan. 

16. Gathering his tribes together, he prepared for conquest. 
Central Asia was then held by four great empires : Kin, 
on the northeast, founded by the Tartars ; to the southeast 
China proper ; to the northwest Kara-Kitai ; and Tangut, 
near the Himalayas, occupied by Turkish tribes. Kin had 
supremacy over China, Tangut, and the Mongols. 

17. Mongolian Conquests. — Jenghis Khan first marched 
against Kin, to whose monarch he owed allegiance. For 
five years he ravaged it with fire and slaughter, destroying 
cities, among others Pekin. He was a cruel and merciless 

14. What action was taken by certain Russian cities? 15. Who were the 
Mongols? Who led them to conquest? 16. What powers held Central Asia? 
17. Describe Jenghis Khan's march and methods. 



310 History of tee World. [a.d. 1163-1227 

conqueror. Leaving a general behind him to complete the 
havoc, he passed over to Tangut, thence to Kara-Kitai, pur- 
suing everywhere his policy of destruction. In Kara-Kitai 
he found Christians, whom he treated with some conside- 
ration. From them he learned the art of writing, and 
adopted their characters for the Mongolian tongue. 

18. Conquest of Khorasmia. — Reaching the great moun- 
tain chain of Bolor-Tagh, the eyes of the barbaric horde 
were feasted on the riches of a new Asiatic empire spread 
out beneath them. This was Khorasmia, stretching from 
the Sea of Aral to the. Indian Ocean, and from the Cas- 
pian Sea to the great Bolor chain. It was the greatest of 
the Mohammedan kingdoms, and Jenghis Khan proposed 
a treaty of alliance with it. His offer was scornfully re- 
jected by the sultan, Mohammed Koteb-ed-Deen. Where- 
upon Jenghis Khan entered and took Bokhara, Samar- 
cand, and all the other great cities in turn, sacking and 
destroying on all sides. The country was ruined. The 
people emigrated towards Syria, and Mohammed retired to 
die on an island in the Caspian Sea (1222). 

19. Conquest of Russia. — Nothing could withstand the 
onset of this fierce conqueror. The hardy people of the 
Caucasus were compelled to submit ; the Polovtsi were 
crushed. The Mongols neared the Russian borders and 
sent deputies to seek alliance. The deputies were slain. 
The Russian princes and Polovtsi assembled on the Kalka 
near its confluence with the Dnieper. They were utterly 
defeated and the princes slain (1224). Turning back, Jen- 
ghis Khan marched against the empire of Tangut, which 
he destroyed. He then returned home to die (1227). 

20. Partition of the Mongol Empire. — The vast empire of 
Jenghis Khan was divided among his four sons, one bear- 
How did Jenghis Khan treat the Christians? What did he learn from them? 

18. Describe the conquest of Khorasmia. 19. How did Russia fare ? What was 
his last conquest ? 



a. d. 1288-1258] The Middle Ages. 311 

ing the title of grand khan and being chief over the 
others. Batu, son of Tushi, khan of the Caucasus region, 
pushed on the conquests in this direction. He overwhelmed 
the Bulgarians of the Volga. The Kussian princes were 
again at strife. Batu fell upon them, destroying the chief 
cities, Eesan, Moscow, Vladimir, and Kief. At Sarai', on 
the Volga, he rested and fixed his residence (1238). 

21. Gaiuk. — The grand khan, Octal', sent another army 
under his son, Gaiuk, to push the conquests further. They 
marched into Poland, beat the Poles, and burned Cracow. 
The Poles rallied, but were crushed at Lieznitz, in Silesia 
(1241). The Mongols passed into Hungary, routed Bela 
IV. and committed their customary outrages on the un- 
fortunate people. For two years they had the country at 
their mercy. The king fled. 

22. Gaiuk, recalled to succeed his father, quitted Hun- 
gary, which then saw the last of the Mongols. Poland 
saw them three times again. Lesko, successor of Boles- 
laus V., struggled bravely but hopelessly against them 
(1280). Eussia suffered most of all, and finally submit- 
ted to the oppressor. The grand duke was invested with 
his dignity by the khan of the Golden Horde, to whom he 
paid homage and tribute. Eussia remained subject to the 
yoke for two hundred and thirty-five years. 

23. Destruction of the Assassins. — Many of the successive 
khans proved themselves men of great warlike capacity. 
One of them, Hulagu, by invitation of the Caliph Mo- 
tassem, prepared to storm the heights of the " Old Man 
of the Mountain," at this time Eoken-ed-Deen, the seventh 
successor of Hassan. The fortresses were surrendered, 
Eoken-ed-Deen was put to death, and the sect of the 
Assassins was soon after exterminated (1256). 

20. What became of Jenghis Khan's empire ? Tell of Batu and his exploits. 
21. What befell the Poles and Hungarians? 22. How was Hungary saved? 
What of Poland ? Of Russia ? 23. Who destroyed the Assassins ? 



312 History of the World. [a. v. 1256-1279 

24. Other Mongolian Conquests. — Two years later Hu- 
lagu, after a bloody struggle, put an end to the Moham- 
medan caliphate. Motassem was beaten to death with 
clubs (1258). He was the last of the Abbassides. Fifty 
years later a successor of Hulagu put an end to the Turk- 
ish sultanate of Iconium. Thus the Seljuks scarcely sur- 
vived the crusading expeditions. In the far East the 
Khan Kubla'i encouraged agriculture, commerce, and lite- 
rature among his people. He took Nankin in 1279 and 
became master of southern China. The Sung dynasty, 
which had lasted three centuries, was destroyed, and Ku- 
blai founded over it the twenty- first dynasty of China. 
He rebuilt Pekin, which he called Cambalu. Here he re- 
ceived and entertained at his court for seventeen years the 
famous Venetian traveller Marco Polo, as also the Fran- 
ciscans, who founded an archbishopric and flourishing mis- 
sion at Cambalu. Kublai's empire stretched from the 
Japan Sea to the Mediterranean and the great lakes of 
Finland, but was too unwieldy to last. 



CHAPTEE VI. 

THE TWO GREAT CENTURIES OF THE MIDDLE 

AGES. 

The popes gave an impetus to many salutary institutions. New religious 
orders sprang up to attack error and vice, convert unbelievers, and teach 
theological science. Modern nationalities and languages began to shape 
themselves, Christian art produced its masterpieces, and the people raised im- 
perishable monuments of faith. 

SECTION I. Zenith of the Papacy and the Church. 

1. « Ages of Faith,"— The title of " Ages of Faith " is 

applied by some to the period included within the ponti- 

24. Whom next did the Mongols suhdue ? What hefell the sultanate of 
Iconium? What of Khan Kubla'i? What dynasty did he found? Mention 
memorable facts of his reign. 



a.d. 1073-1274] The Middle Ages. 313 

ficate of Gregory VII. (1073) arid the convocation of the 
Fourteenth General Council under Gregory X. (1274). 
Others call this the new birth of art and literature. The 
Papacy was at this time most powerful in Europe, and the 
influence of the Church was paramount. The great fea- 
ture of this influence was the gradual triumph of Chris- 
tian feeling over the brute force- and passions of men. 

2. Influence of the Popes. — During the three centuries 
of persecution the head of the Church was seen but lit- 
tle. After Constantine the popes came forth and shone 
in councils, where errors were pointed out and heresies 
condemned. After Charlemagne the splendor and great- 
ness of the Roman pontificate were made still more appa- 
rent. The pope influenced the monarchs and princes of 
the time, was their arbiter in doubtful cases, and for ever 
stood between their tyranny and the oppressed peoples. 
They maintained, above all, the liberties of the Church — 
that is to say, the liberty of the Christian, which is the 
foundation of all liberty — free election of bishops, free 
appointment to sees, and the maintenance of ecclesiastical 
privileges, which were the refuge of multitudes in those 
times against the power of the monarch or the lawless- 
ness of the nobles. The Papacy thus became the very 
centre of Christendom. 

3. The Popes Patrons of Art, Letters, and Civilization. 
— Side by side with this attitude of Christian indepen- 
dence stood their constant solicitude for the advancement 
of peoples in all that was good and great. They sent 
forth troops of missionaries to convert the heathen. They 
were the chief patrons of learning at a period when learn- 
ing was threatened with destruction. They watched over 
the arts, blessed and sanctioned all good institutions— such 

1. What is meant by the "Ages of Faith" and how far did they extend? 
2. Describe the growing influence of the Papacy. What did the popes main- 
tain ? 3. In what else did the popes take the lead ? 



314 History of the World. [ a .d. 1076-1256 

as the Truce of God, chivalry, associations for building 
churches, roads, bridges, protecting pilgrims — the univer- 
sities, and the religious orders. 

4. Eeligious Orders. — The religious orders in the mid- 
dle ages were the great pioneers of industry, learning, and 
Christian living among the people. The great abbey of 
Cluny, the mother-house of so many, was the model up- 
on which all other congregations were fashioned. They 
sprang up in great numbers and variety. In 1076 the or- 
der of Grand mont was founded by St. Stephen of Thiers ; 
in 1084 St. Bruno of Cologne and St. Hugh, Bishop 
of Grenoble, founded the Carthusians ; in 1098 St. Eobert 
founded the Cistercians, which soon attracted to them 
the great St. Bernard. These and many such were all 
grafted on the Benedictine stock. A number of others, 
such as the Canons Regular, the Premonstratensians, were 
added in the twelfth century. This century also witnessed 
the rise of the military orders which did such great service 
to Christendom in combating the infidel. 

5. Mendicant and Charitable Orders. — The thirteenth 
century, which began during the illustrious pontificate of 
Innocent III. (1198-1216), saw a new series of orders 
arise. These were the mendicant or begging friars, who 
went about begging their way and teaching and preach- 
ing the while. There were various divisions of them : the 
Preaching Friars, or Dominicans, founded at Toulouse 
by St. Dominic, and the Friars Minor, founded by St. 
Francis of Assisi. There were many branches of the lat- 
ter order, but all had the same aim and manner of life. 
In 1256 Alexander IV. united all the religious orders of 
the West into one mendicant order under the name of 
Hermits of St. Augustine, or Augustinians. These had 

4. Describe the office and work of the religions orders. Mention some of the 
orders and their fonnders. 5. What orders arose in the thirteenth century? 
What was their special office ? Mention two great divisions. 



The Middle Ages. 315 

branch orders also for -women, as well as a Third Order 
for persons living in the world. 

6. There followed various other orders who devoted 
themselves to the body as well as the soul : the care of 
the sick, the indigent, the unfortunate, the redemption of 
captives. Several purely monastic orders were also found- 
ed- in this century. 

7/ Eanatical Sects. — With the rise of religious orders and 
spread of the faith came contrary sects and confraterni- 
ties, having for their object the overthrow of the faith, 
or of this or that portion of it. One of these, whose 
leader called himself the Son of God, attacked the sac- 
raments and payment of tithes. Another railed at the 
Mass, singing, and the use of images. The Waldenses 
objected to Catholic festivals, the sacred rites, and, most 
of all, confession. They confined themselves to the read- 
ing of the Scriptures. All these sectaries indulged in 
great excesses and had to be put down by force of arms 
as a danger to society, preaching and example having no 
effect on them. 

4 The Inquisition. — Forced to submit outwardly, they 
for the most part continued their practices in secret. To 
guard against them and preserve the purity of Christian 
faith the Council of Toulouse (1229) set up tribunals en- 
dowed with extraordinary powers. These constituted the 
Inquisition, or Holy Office, where heretics were denounced 
to the ordinary of the diocese and submitted to the cen- 
sures of the Church. If the sentence was one of condem- 
nation the accused was handed over to the civil power to 
inflict the punishment awarded ; the monarchs of those 
days regarding heresy, blasphemy, and sacrilege as crimes 
against civil society and to be punished accordingly. 

6. Tell of other orders. 7. What sects arose? Who were the Waldenses? 
Why were the sects put down ? 8. How came the Inquisition? What was the 
office of the Inquisition ? 



316 History of the World. [a.u. 1000-1234 

SECTION XL Theological Sciences, National Languages, Christian Art. 

9. Scholastic Theology. — The heresies of the eleventh 
century were the occasion of great theological lights ap- 
pearing on the other side. The constant discussions sharp- 
ened intellects and stimulated effort. Even the Christian 
champions themselves, as St. Anselm and Eoscelin of 
Compiegne, agreeing in doctrine, sometimes differed in 
method of interpretation. Peter Abelard drew crowds to 
listen to his lectures. He fell from his intellectual height, 
and his errors were laid bare by St. Bernard. 

10. Great Theologians. — Peter Lombard, a friend of St. 
Bernard and disciple of Abelard, first arranged the sub- 
stance of theology on a simple and clear plan in his Four 
Boohs of Sentences. New heresies sprang up, to be met by 
new men. The mendicant orders devoted themselves to 
teaching as much as to begging. Paris was the home of 
theological studies. There Alexander of Hales and Alber- 
tus Magnus taught the divine science. But even they 
were outshone by their disciples, St. Bonaventure and St. 
Thomas Aquinas, who to this day stand the masters of the 
science they drank in with their hearts as well as with 
their minds. Vincent of Beauvais, Eoger Bacon, and 
Duns Scotus are names that also shed lustre on this glo- 
rious period. 

11. Civil and Canon Law. — "While Paris was the great 
centre of theology and philosophy, Bologna was learned in 
the law. It was a Bolognese, Irnerius, who in the twelfth 
century exhumed and edited the Pandects of Justinian. 
The sacred canons were also taught there. By direction 
of Gregory IX., in 1234, St. Raymond of Penafort made 
a complete collection of the papal decisions down to that 
date, which is known as the Decretals of Gregory IX. 

9. What was the effect of the heresies of the eleventh century 1 Mention some 
great theologians. 10. What of Peter Lombard ? For what was Paris famous? 
Mention other illustrious doctors. 11. For what was Bologna famous ? 



The Middle Ages. 317 

12. Universities. — The universities grew out of the gene- 
ral eagerness for knowledge. The episcopal and abbatial 
schools were too small to accommodate the numbers that 
flocked to them. The course of instruction comprised lit- 
erature, law, medicine, and theology. There were univer- 
sities at Bologna, Padua, and Toulouse, all famed for law; 
at Salerno and Montpellier for medicine ; while Paris was 
the queen in theological science. Others sprang up in Ger- 
many, at Heidelberg, Vienna, Ingolstadt (now transferred to 
Munich), which soon vied with the best. England had its 
Oxford, and later on its Cambridge ; Spain, its Salamanca ; 
and Portugal, Coimbra. Every one of these and others in 
the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were founded under 
the direct patronage of the Holy See. 

13. Languages. — At the universities the common lan- 
guage spoken was Latin. The purely national literatures 
sprang up outside of them in the chronicles, laws, songs, 
and stories of the people. Through these the native idioms 
gradually formed themselves into the living languages of 
to-day. The drama was revived, of a sacred character chief- 
ly, and was played in the churches or at public festivals. 

14. Christian Art. — Later on Dante arose with his Divine 
Comedy, a monument of his time to all ages. Art revived 
and took a Christian form. Magnificent basilicas and Go- 
thic cathedrals and churches rose up in all lands out of the 
faith and devotion of the people. Oftentimes all the peo- 
ple labored together through long years in their erection. 
Out of this sprang the various -stjdes of mediaeval archi- 
tecture. Out of the same came the rich embellishments, 
the ornaments, the casting in bronze, the beautiful stain- 
ed-glass painting. In the thirteenth century painting and 
sculpture became distinct arts. 

12. What was taught at the universities ? Name some of the universities. 13. 
What was the language of the universities 1 How did the national literatures 
arise ? 14. What of Dante ? How fared art 1 How came medigeval architecture ? 



FIFTH EPOCH (1270-1453), 

FROM THE DEATH OF ST. LOUIS TO THE TAKING OF CONSTANTI- 
NOPLE BY THE TURKS— 183 YEARS. 

The closing epoch of the Middle Ages was disturbed by religious and politi- 
cal anarchy. The pontifical authority was weakened and many disorders arose 
in consequence. There was war for a century between France and England; 
the German Empire declined; Italy was rent by internal struggles; the Span- 
ish kingdoms were at war with each other ; while, in the general confusion, the 
Turks overcame the Slavs and Greeks and seized Constantinople. 



CHAPTER I. 
THE GREAT SCHISM OF THE WEST. 

The great schism of the West, brought about by the violence of Philip, the 
Fair and the transfer of the Holy See to Avignon, covers a period of seventy-one 
years (1378-1449). This includes the schism of ten years (1439-1449). 

SECTION I. Boniface VIII. and Philip the Fair. 
1. Conflict between Boniface and Philip. — The Second 
Council of Lyons — fourteenth oecumenical — saw the reun- 
ion of the Creek and Latin churches (1274). The triumph 
of the Papacy, under the great Pope Gregory X., seemed 
complete. Then ensued a series of short pontificates, 
eight in eighteen years, which weakened the authority of 
the Holy See. The Creeks relapsed into schism, and the 
Christians lost their last foothold in the Holy Land before 
the accession of Pope Boniface VIII. (1294). The rival- 
ries of princes set Europe ajar. The ambition of Philip 
the Pair of France led him not only to rout the English 

How far does the fifth epoch extend ? What great events are comprised in it ? 
1. What was effected at the Council of Lyons t What followed on the death of 
Gregory X. 'I How was Europe disturbed ? 

318 



a.d. 1296-1300] The Middle Ages. 319 

from French soil, but to seize on Flanders, whose count, 
Guy of Dampierre, lie enticed to Paris and there held pris- 
oner. His subjects were loaded with taxes to support his 
projects. He invaded church properties. Boniface VIII. 
advised him to make peace with England and release the 
Count of Flanders, while at the same time he issued a 
bull forbidding, under pain of excommunication, the 
clergy to pay, and the laity to require them to pay, any 
subsidy without permission of the Holy See (129G). 

2. Friendly Relations resumed. — The King of England 
was equally guilty in this respect with the King of France. 
Philip declared that God alone was the judge of his acts, 
and forbade any money to be taken out of France without 
his permission, thereby stopping the offerings to the Holy 
See. He suspended relations with the papal court. Ger- 
many and Italy were convulsed by internal troubles, so the 
pope could look for no aid against a monarch who not only 
held France and Navarre but the sovereigns of Spain and 
the princes of Naples and Hungary in his dependency. 
Owing to a revolt of the Colonna family the Ghibelines, 
declared enemies of the Holy See, held Rome. Boniface 
was compelled to modify his bull, and allowed Philip to 
levy subsidies on the French clergy. He reconciled Philip 
with the King of England, dropped the subject of the 
Count of Flanders, and solemnly canonized King Louis 
IX., Philip's grandfather. Thereupon the French mon- 
arch resumed relations with the Holy See. The Colon- 
nas were defeated. The pope published the first secular 
jubilee for the year 1300, and so great was the throng of 
pilgrims to Rome that a breach had to be opened in the 
city's walls to let them through. 

3. Renewal of the Quarrel (1301-1303).— The Colonnas, 

Describe the reign of Philip the Fair. What action did Boniface Till, take 1 
2. How did Philip retaliate ? What was Philip's power ? How stood Eome ? 
On what conditions was reconciliation with the pope effected ? 



320 JZlSTOBY OF THE WORLD. [ a .d. 1301-1303 

banished from Eome, found, refuge 'with Philip, who soon 
broke his engagements with the Holy Father. His de- 
mands, like his actions, were most arbitrary and com- 
pletely incompatible either with the dignity of the Holy 
See or the freedom of the Church in his dominions. In 
a forged bull he professed to discover aggressions on the 
part of the pope against the liberties of the French na- 
tion and crown. The States-General were asked to main- 
tain "the ancient liberties of the nation" (1302). The 
nobility and commons promised whatever was asked, and 
the clergy also yielded. The pope made clear the relations 
of the Papacy with temporal princes in the celebrated bull 
Unam sanctum, and in the Council of Eome repudiated 
the construction put upon his words by Philip IV. (1302). 

4. Outrage on Boniface. — Despite the king's prohibition 
thirty-nine French bishops attended the council. A second 
assembly of the States-General, convoked at the Louvre 
(1303), declared Boniface VIII. a usurper and a heretic. 
The king was entreated to call a general council for the 
election of a legitimate pope. Philip consented to his own 
suggestion, and his summons was responded to by many in 
his own dominions. He sent William of Nogaret to notify 
the pope. Nogaret seized the person of the Holy Father, 
then eighty-six, at Anagni, his native place, wdiere he had 
taken refuge. He received the invaders seated on his throne, 
attended only by two cardinals. He w T as loaded with insult 
until the citizens, rising up, drove out the troops of ISToga- 
ret and trampled the banner of France in the mud. Ta- 
ken back to Eome in triumph, the Eoman nobles held him 
in bondage under pretext of protection, till at last the 
venerable old man was relieved by death (1303). 

5. The Holy See transferred to Avignon. — Benedict XL 

3. What caused the renewal of the struggle between the pope and Philip ? 
"What was the bull Unam sanctam ? 4. What action did the French States- 
General take ? What of William of Nogaret 1 How did the Pope die ? 



a.d. 1803-1342] The Middle Ages. 321 

succeeded. To secure his independence lie left Borne, and 
to appease Philip revoked the censures pronounced against 
him. After excommunicating Nbgaret he suddenly expired, 
by poison, as some say, at Perugia (1304). Ten months 
later Bertrand de Got, Archbishop of Bordeaux, was elect- 
ed by the conclave and crowned at Lyons under the name 
of Clement V. As Borne was in revolt he fixed his 
residence at Avignon, whereby the Papacy lost much of 
its prestige under the idea that it was little more than an 
appanage of France. 

6. Suppression of the Templars. — France restricted as far 
as it could the pope's actions. Clement convoked the 
Fifteenth (Ecumenical Council at Vienne (1311). Boni- 
face VIII. , in contradiction to the expressed wish of Philip, 
was declared to be a legitimate and orthodox pope. 
Philip himself was once more absolved. He had arrest- 
ed all the Knights Templars he could find in his king- 
dom in 1307. He now urged their trial. Examination 
showed that the order had become enormously wealthy, 
and with wealth enormously corrupt. It was therefore sup- 
pressed in the council (1312). Philip had the grand master, 
Jacques Molay, burned (1314). The possessions of the Tem- 
plars were transferred to the Knights Hospitalers by papal 
bull, but the king kept most of what he had confiscated. 

7. Troubles in Some. — The popes at Avignon were anx- 
ious for a new crusade against the Mohammedans and 
for a reconciliation with the Creek Church. But they 
strove vainly to bring about peace in the West, particularly 
in Italy. The emperors of Germany kept alive the dis- 
turbances of the G-hibelines in the peninsula. The strug- 
gle between the German princes and the popes was closed 
by Clement VI. (1342-1352). 

5. What of Benedict XI. 1 How came the popes to Avignon ? The result ? 
6. What of the Council of Tienne ? Describe the suppression of the Knights 
Templars. 7. What hindered a new crusade ? Who ended the struggle ? 



322 History of the World. [ a .d. 1347-1377 

8. Rienzi (1347). — Meanwhile Borne, deserted by the 
popes, liad passed into the hands of the factious nobles, 
who harassed the people on every side. Fired with indig- 
nation, Nicholas Eienzi, a young Eoman, son of a tavern- 
keeper, but a man of good education, resolved on lifting 
up his country to its ancient splendor. His fiery elo- 
quence and noble bearing caught the hearts of the peo- 
ple, who at his summons followed him to the Capitol 
and there proclaimed the republic of the " Good State." 
Eienzi was declared " Tribune and Liberator of Eome." 
His rule was at first of the best. He restored peace in 
the city, kept the nobles in their castles, and invited the 
other cities of Italy to join in establishing the republic. 

„Then he lost his head, became vain-glorious, weak, volup- 
tuous, and tyrannical, and after a reign of seven months 
was abandoned by the people, leaving Eome in a worse 
condition than ever. 

9. The Holy See restored to Eome. — The nobles resumed 
their tyranny, and the terrible black plague devastated the 
city. Pope Innocent VI. (1352-1362) opened negotiations 
for the re-establishment of the papal authority in Eome. 
But Eienzi, who had been pardoned by the pope, once 
more led the people after him and resumed his sway, only 
to lose both it and his life at the hands of the populace, 
incensed at his tyranny (1354). Finally, owing to the skill 
of Cardinal Albornoz, Pope Urban V. quitted France and 
entered Eome in triumph (1367). But returning again to 
France, the renewed glory of the Papacy waned, especially 
when at his death another Frenchman (the third in thirty 
years) was elected to succeed him with the title of Greg- 
ory XL Gregory set out for Eome, Avhere he was receiv- 
ed with tumultuous acclaim by the people (1377). The 

8. Who was Rienzi, and what was his ambition 1 What position did he attain *? 
Describe his rule. 9. What followed the fall of Rienzi ? What finally befell 
Rienzi ? How came the popes back to Rome ? 



a.d. 1378-1379] The Middle Ages. 323 

country, however, continued disturbed and in a state of 
revolt. The Eoman nobles were averse to surrendering 
their power, and Gregory sank under the weight of his 
woes (1378). 

SECTION II. The Great ScMsm (1378-1417). 

10. Urban VI. — In electing a successor to Gregory XL 
the cardinals were divided into three parties. The people 
clamored for a Eoman pope. Finally most of the votes 
were cast for Bartholomew Prignano, Archbishop of Bari, 
a Neapolitan, who took the name of Urban VI. The 
choice was favorably received by the people and by all 
Christendom. 

11. Clement VII. — Urban's method of reform displeased 
the cardinals, who fled to Anagni, taking with them the 
pontifical tiara. There they declared his election null and 
the Holy See vacant. Urban proposed to submit his claims 
to the decision of a general council. They would not hear 
him, but nominated Eobert of Geneva, who took the name 
of Clement VII. (1378), though he had previously written 
to several princes notifying them of the lawful election of 
Urban VI. Urban excommunicated the anti-pope and all 
his adherents. Clement retired to Avignon (1379), where 
he was acknowledged as legitimate successor of the popes 
who had previously dwelt there. 

12. Anarchy in Christendom. — France, Scotland, Spain, 
Savoy, Naples, and the kingdom of Cyprus declared for 
Clement ; England, Portugal, the Netherlands, nearly all 
Italy, Germany, Hungary, Poland, and the Scandinavian 
states for Urban. This was the signal for a long series of 
disorders and scandals never known before in Christendom. 
The popes anathematized one another and levied troops 

10. Describe the election of Urban VI. 11. What course did the cardinals 
take ? Who was Clement VII. and whither did he retire ? 12. How was Europe 
divided on the question of the Papacy ? Describe the general result of the schism, 



324 History of the World. [a.d. 1889-1414 

against each other, granting them the same indulgences as 
in the Crusades. The strife of the Urbanists and Clemen- 
tines was carried oyer the world. The University of Paris 
strove hard to heal the schism. To Urban succeeded Boni- 
face IX. in 1389. In the interests of the Church and of 
Christendom he made fair advances towards a settlement, 
in negotiating which Clement VII. died (1394). 

13. The Council of Pisa. — The Clementine cardinals elect- 
ed a successor under the name of Benedict XIII. He re- 
fused all compromise, and Innocent VII., who succeeded 
Boniface, was equally obstinate. His successor, Gregory 
XII. (1406), was desirous of restoring peace, but Benedict 
was unyielding. Then a council was agreed upon by the 
cardinals of both sides. About a hundred bishops assem- 
bled at Pisa, and two hundred by proxy, Gregory and 
Benedict refusing to appear. The council declared itself 
oecumenical, pronounced the deposition of both popes 
and the vacancy of the Holy See (1409). The cardinals 
elected Alexander V. as pope, which, instead of mending 
matters, simply placed a third pope in the field. 

14. End of the Great Schism ; Election of Martin V. 
(1417). — At the solicitation of the Emperor Sigismund, 
John XXIII, who had succeeded Alexander V. in 1410, 
convoked a general council at Constance (1414). The em- 
peror, with a vast number of the faithful of all ranks 
and more than one hundred and fifty prelates, attended. 
Eive nations were represented : Italy, Germany, France, 
England, and Spain. The right to vote was extended to 
simple ecclesiastics, doctors, princes, and their represen- 
tatives, which brought the number up to eighteen thou- 
sand. Voting went by nation. It was agreed to demand 
the absolute abdication of all three popes. John XXIII. 

How did Boniface IX. act 1 ? 13. To what agreement did the cardinals finally 
come ? What was done at the Council of Pisa 1 14. Describe the Council ox 
Constance. What was the demand of the council 1 



a.d. 1414-1481] The Middle Ages. 325 

refused and fled. Brought back and deposed, he renounced 
a title which he declared had never left him a happy day. 
Gregory XII., after annulling the acts of the popes of Avig- 
non and Bologna, confirmed all his own and his predeces- 
sors' acts, convoked the council, and then laid aside the 
pontifical dignity for ever. The obstinate Benedict XIII. 
was deposed and Cardinal Otto Colonna elected with the 
title of Martin V. (1417). 

15. Wickliffe and Huss. — Benedict XIII. continued to call 
himself pope, but his successor finally acknowledged Mar- 
tin Y. The council also condemned the heresy started 
by John Wickliffe in England, and which had begun to 
spread through Bohemia and the adjacent countries. Its 
leader in Bohemia was John Huss, rector of the Univer- 
sity of Prague. He denied the lawfulness of indulgences, 
the primacy of the popes, the infallibility of the Church, 
the right of the clergy to possess temporalities, the power 
of forgiving sins, and the honor due saints and holy 
images, admitting no other authority than Holy Scripture 
as interpreted by reason alone. 

/ 16. Death of Huss. — These doctrines produced great dis- 
turbance in Bohemia. John Huss, cited by the council, 
appeared and pleaded his cause. He was convicted of 
error and imprisoned. His writings, with those of Wick- 
liffe, were publicly burnt. Refusing to retract, he was 
degraded from holy orders and given up to the magistrates 
of Constance, who, in accordance with the laws of the 
empire, condemned him to be burnt. His disciple, Jerome 
of Prague, shared his fate. His followers, the Hussites, 
took up arms and ravaged Bohemia and the neighboring 
countries. 

17. Eugenius IV. (1431-1447) and the Council of Basle. 

Give the decisions of the Council of Constance. 15. What heresy was con- 
demned by the council? What did Huss teach? 16. How was Huss dealt 
with ? Who shared his fate ? What of Huss' followers ? 



326 History of the World. [a.d. 1431-1447 

— A new council, conyoked at Basle by Martin V., was 
<ypened by his successor, Eugenius IV. (1431). The Huss- 
ite heresy was condemned, but in the questions of re- 
form in the Church and reconciliation with the Greeks 
the assembly was at variance with the Sovereign Pontiff. 
The Council of Constance had set its authority and that 
of all councils above that of the Holy See. This claim 
was now renewed, the pope protesting. Other inroads 
were made on papal authority. Eugenius transferred the 
council to Eerrara. He was condemned for contumacy, 
as a disturber of the peace and an obstinate heretic, and 
was declared to have forfeited the pontifical dignity. A 
little conclave pretended to elect a new pope in the 
person of Amacleus VIII., who had renounced the duke- 
dom of Savoy to become a monk. He was named Eelix 
V. (1439). 

18. The Schism ended. — New confusions arose in Chris- 
tendom. The Catholic sovereigns seized the opportunity 
to enforce several schismatical decrees of the Council of 
Basle. Thus Germany had its " Pragmatic Sanction," 
and Erance the same, published at Bonrges and called the 
"Liberties of the Gallican Church." The pope excommu- 
nicated the members of the conclave, annulled its de- 
crees, and transferred the Council of Eerrara to Florence. 
His object was to bring about reunion between the East- 
ern and Western churches. The emperor, John Palseolo- 
gus, the patriarch of Constantinople, and the most learn- 
ed prelates of the Eastern Empire were present. After 
long discussions the Greeks and Latins made the same 
profession of faith (1439). Ten years later Eelix V. ab- 
dicated all his claims. Eugenius' successor, Nicholas 
V. (1447-1455), healed the schism wholly and formed a 

17. What happened at the Council of Basle ? How did the pope act 1 Who 
was Felix V. 1 18. How did the sovereigns use the Council of Basle 1 What ac- 
tion did the pope take 1 Describe the Council of Florence. 



a.d. 1270-1328] The Middle A. ges. 327 

concordat with the German emperor, whom he solemnly- 
crowned in Rome (1452). This was the last coronation 
of the kind there. Next year came news of the fall 
of Constantinople, and the advance of the Turks was met 
by the weakness and divisions among Christian peoples 
engendered by the great schism. 



CHAPTER II. 

FRANCE AND ENGLAND— THE HUNDRED YEARS' 

WAR. 

SECTION I. The Last Capets. 

1. France under the Capets.— Philip III. (1270-1285), 
the successor of St. Louis, honorably ended the last Cru- 
sade. He engaged in unsuccessful wars with Castile and 
Aragon, but, by his brother's death, added to his inheri- 
tance the county of Toulouse and won Joanna, the heiress 
of Navarre and Champagne, for his son, Philip IV., the 
Fair (1285-1314). Philip was constantly occupied with 
wars of spoliation. Bnt the English beat him from their 
possessions in France, and, though he despoiled and im- 
prisoned Guy of Flanders (1297), the Flemings rose and 
destroyed the French army at Courtrai (1302). Philip 
was finally compelled to evacuate the country, save Lille 
and other fortified towns of French Flanders. 

2. Philip and his Successors. — The kingdom of Philip 
the Fair stretched from the Rhone to the Mediterranean, 
from the Atlantic to the Scheldt. He was a powerful 
monarch and made his will law at home ; but he sorely 
oppressed his people with taxes. The latter years of his 

Describe the condition of Christendom at the fall of Constantinople. 1. 
For what is the reign of Philip III. remarkable ? What was the result of the 
wars with England and Flanders ? 2. Give extent of Philip the Pair's dominions. 



328 History of the World. [a.d. 1272-1305 

reign were given to a relentless struggle with the Holy 
See and the ruin of the Templars. His three sons dur- 
ing a space of fourteen years successively filled the throne, 
and after the death of Charles IV. the crown of France 
passed to the house of Valois (1328). 

3. Edward I. of England (1272-1307); Conquest of 
Wales (1283). — Edward I. had to restore England from 
the evils into which the long civil wars in the reign of 
his father had plunged her. The stubborn Welsh had al- 
ways been a source of trouble to England. Edward, on 
the outbreak of their prince, Llewellyn, inarched into 
Wales, slew the prince, and routed his army (1283). He 
then proceeded to conciliate the people, and wholly won 
them over by presenting them with a Welsh prince, his 
infant son, born during the campaign. From that day 
forth the male heir to the English crown has borne the 
title of Prince of Wales. 

4. Conquest of Scotland. — Edward next turned to Scot- 
land, where there was contention for the crown between 
John Baliol and Eobert Bruce, the royal line having become 
extinct in the person of Alexander III. (1286). Edward, 
chosen arbiter, decided in favor of Baliol on condition that 
the latter professed himself his vassal. Baliol, aided by 
Philip the Fair, afterwards attempted to shake off the yoke, 
but was defeated and taken prisoner (1297). Edward be- 
came master of Scotland, but the tyranny of his govern- 
ment caused a revolt, headed by William Wallace. Wallace 
won many victories, and would have gained the battle of 
Falkirk had he not been deserted by his cavalry, composed 
mainly of Scottish nobles. Betrayed at last, he was taken 
to London and there beheaded (1305). Robert Bruce, grand- 
son of Balioks competitor, took up the popular cause, 

What marked the close of Philip's reign 1 Who succeeded him ? 3. De- 
scribe the conquest of Wales by Edward I. 4. How came Edward into Scot- 
land? Who led the revolt against him '? What befell Wallace 1 



a.d. 1305-1329] The Middle Ages. 329 

after having been an ally of the English. Bruce being pro- 
claimed King of Scotland (1306), Edward was advancing 
against him when he died. 

5. Edward II. (1307-1327).— Edward's son, Edward II., 
was weak and irresolute. He gave himself up to favorites 
and foolish pleasures. Piers Graves ton, the most obnoxious 
of his favorites, was taken and slain by the barons. They 
then marched north against the Scots, dragging the king 
with them. Bruce met them at Bannockburn, and, with 
inferior forces, inflicted on them an overwhelming defeat 
(1314), which secured the independence of his country. 
Famine racked England, while Edward gave himself up 
to two new favorites, the Spencers. His queen, Isabella, 
led a party against him, and, finding himself deserted, he 
abdicated (1327). Parliament entrusted the government 
to the Prince of Wales. The king was soon afterwards 
found murdered. 

6. Philip VI. (1328-1350) and Edward III. (1327-1377). 
— The Capet line was extinguished in the person of Charles 
the Fair, and Philip, Count of Valois, grandson of Philip 
III., was chosen King of France. He annexed the province 
of Champagne, and assisted the Count of Flanders against 
his revolted subjects, whom he reduced at Cassel (1328). 
He had for rival Edward III., the young King of England, 
who himself had pretensions to the French throne. Ed- 
ward was as wise as he was courageous and skilful. He 
shook off the influence of his mother, Isabella, and her 
favorite, Mortimer, who was hanged. Isabella was impris- 
oned for her crimes to the term of her natural life. The 
death of Bruce (1329) delivered Scotland over to anarchy. 
David, his son, a child of four, was crowned, but Edward 
Baliol, son of John Baliol, aided by Edward, who beat the 

What of Robert Bruce ? 5. Did Edward II. resemble his father ? What oc- 
curred at Bannockburn ? Describe Edward's reign and end. 6. Who succeeded 
Charles IV. of Trance ? What rivalry arose between Trance and England ? 



330 History of the World. [a.d. 1333-1350 

Scots at Halidon Hill (1333), ascended the throne as vassal 
to the King of England. 

7. Battle of Creey. — Flanders was drawn into the dis- 
putes between Edward and the King of France. England 
fomented the trouble between the Flemings and the French. 
An insurrection broke out in Ghent under Jacob van Ar- 
teveld, head of the trades-guilds of the city. It soon spread 
to other cities, and in a short time Arteveld was ruler of 
Flanders. Meanwhile Edward had declared war (1337) and 
landed with his army in France. The fleet that should have 
intercepted him was destroyed in Sluys harbor (1340). The 
war is chiefly memorable for the famous victory of Crecy 
(1346), where Edward's son, the Black Prince, Avon his 
spurs, the French sustaining an overwhelming defeat. This 
victory gave Calais into the English hands, thus supply- 
ing them with an easy landing-place in France. 

8. Defeat of the Scots. — In Scotland the Bruce party had 
triumphed and Baliol was driven from the throne. Ed- 
ward being absent, the Scotch, at the instigation of Philip, 
invaded England, but were defeated at Nevil's Cross (1346), 
and David, taken prisoner, was lodged in the Tower of Lon- 
don. The black plague had reached France and was de- 
cimating the country. Philip died, leaving his kingdom in 
a sad plight. During his reign France acquired Dauphiny, 
and thenceforth the heir to the French crown was called 
the Dauphin, that being a condition of its cession. 

9. John II. and Edward III. (1350-1364).— Philip's son, 
John, called the Good, ascended a troubled throne. The 
States-General wished to limit the royal authority. Some 
of the great vassals of the king intrigued with the English, 
Edward having, even in Philip's time, proclaimed himself 
King of France and quartered the lilies on his arms. John 

Describe the troubles in Scotland. 7. What occurred in Flanders? Tell of 
Crecy and its result. 8. What of Nevil's Cross 1 How did Philip leave France ? 
9, What difficulties had John II. to encounter ? 



a.d. 1350-13G4] The Middle Ages. 331 

had the King of Navarre imprisoned, and while occupying 
his domains the Black Prince advanced from Bordeaux into 
the very heart of France. John met him at Poitiers with an 
overwhelming force. Bad generalship and overweening- 
confidence lost the French the day, and the result was a 
more disastrous defeat than at Crecy. John was taken 
prisoner, sent to England, and confined in the Tower. 

10. Troubles in France. — France was in desperate straits. 
Charles, the Dauphin, summoned the States-General, who 
were more intent on profiting by the situation than reme- 
dying it. A popular party rose up under the lead of 
Stephen Marcel, a Paris merchant, who was assassinat- 
ed (1358) in consequence of the betrayal of the army 
by Charles of Navarre. A revolt of the peasants, called 
the "Jacquerie," occurred and added to the confusion. 
Charles gradually restored order and refused to ransom 
the king at the price of the territory once possessed by 
the English. Edward again invaded the country, but to 
little purpose. At the treaty of Bretigny (1360) he 
abandoned Poitou, Saintonge, and Limousin. John was 
conditionally liberated, but, being unable to pay his ran- 
som, gave himself again into Edward's hands. He died 
in captivity. 

11. Charles V. and Edward III. (1364-1380).— Charles, 
the Dauphin, had long been king in fact, and his wisdom 
had retrieved many of the French disasters. On ascend- 
ing the throne he set Du Guesclin, the famous Breton 
captain, at the head of his armies. France had for years 
been raided by the Free Companies — armed mercenaries 
who sold their services to the highest bidders and engaged 
in many a fray on their own account. Du Guesclin 
gathered an army of them, which he led into Spain, thus 

Describe the battle of Poitiers. 10. What was the condition of France ? Who 
restored order ? What was the treaty of Bretigny ? 11. How did Charles Y. be- 
gin his reign ? What of Du Guesclin and the Tree Companies ? 



332 History of the World. [ a .d. 1364-1381 

ridding the country of them. He set Henry of Transta- 
mare on the throne of Castile. The exactions of the 
Black Prince had created great discontent among the 
Aquitanians. Sickness compelled him to return to Eng- 
land, and his successors were powerless against the skill 
and valor of Du Guesclin, who soon captured all their 
strongholds save Bordeaux, Bayonne, and Calais. He died 
soon after, and Charles shortly followed his brave Consta- 
ble to the tomb. Edward III. lived long enough to see 
his troops driven from France and the Black Prince 
snatched from him by death. 

SECTION II. Anarchy in England and France. 

12. Eichard II. (1377^1399); Wickliffe.— Kich'ard, son 
of the Black Prince, was only eleven when he ascended 
the throne. His four uncles ruled England for their own 
benefit. The greed of these men and the long wars made 
the English people restive. Discontent had been growing, 
and it was fanned by the dangerous teachings of Wick- 
liffe, which "were similar to those of John Huss. He was 
protected by Edward III., who refused to pay the cus- 
tomary tribute to Eome. Wickliffe taught that none but 
those who are sinless have a right to hold property or 
office. A poll-tax being imposed, the people were driven 
to desperation (1381). They were harangued by John 
Ball, a preacher and a Wicldiffite, who taught that all 
things should be held in common and that all should 
occupy the same social rank. 

13. Wat Tyler's Insurrection. — Wat Tyler, an Essex 
smith, slew a brutal tax-gatherer, and the angered people 
flew to arms. At the head of a hundred thousand men 
Tyler marched on London, killing the officials and plun- 

Describe Du Guesclin's campaigns. How did the English invasion end ? 12. 
Who succeeded Edward III. ? How was England ruled % Tell of Wickliffe's 
teachings and their result. 13. Tell of Wat Tyler's insurrection. 



a.d. 1381-1399] The Middle A ges. 333 

dering the castles on their route. London fell into their 
hands and was ravaged. The Archbishop of Canterbury 
was slain. To save the city the king invited Tyler to 
a conference. They met at Smithfield, the royal party 
being few and Tyler leading twenty thousand of his fol- 
lowers. While talking to the king Tyler was stabbed by 
Sir William Walworth, the lord mayor of London. The 
courage of Eichard saved his party from destruction. 
Riding up to the people, he proclaimed himself their 
leader and they followed the gallant boy. He promised 
them redress and the rebellion was quelled. The ring- 
leaders were executed, and a synod in London (1382) 
pronounced formal censure on Wickliffe, to whose teach- 
ings the revolt was attributed. 

14. Eichard deposed. — The affairs of the kingdom did 
not progress favorably. Richard, never master of himself, 
had to surrender the chief power to his uncle Gloucester 
(1386), whose exactions and cruelty were felt in all the 
land. The Parliament became his pliant tool. In 1389 
.the general discontent afforded Richard an opportunity 
of re-establishing his authority. Peace and prosperity 
came back, but the barons felt and resented their loss of 
power. The Duke of Gloucester raised a revolt, was ar- 
rested, taken to Calais, and there murdered. Richard 
assailed all his foes in turn and confiscated the inherit- 
ance of his uncle, the Duke of Lancaster, whose son 
Henry he banished. Henry, returning secretly and hav- 
ing a strong party at his back, raised the standard of 
revolt. The king, betrayed, was imprisoned and forced 
to abdicate. 

15. Henry IV. (1399-1413).— Henry of Lancaster, a 
grandson of Edward III., seized the crown and was pro- 
Describe the proceedings of the rebels and the end of the revolt. 14. How did 

affairs progress in England ? What action did Eichard take? Who led the re- 
volt against the king 1 



334 History of the World. [a.d. 1399-1413 

claimed king (1399). Kichard was found dead in prison. 
A party took up arms for the house of Clarence, to 
whom the throne by right reverted, but they were de- 
feated at . Shrewsbury (1403). Henry then reduced Wales 
and fastened the English hold on Scotland. 

16. The State of Scotland. — David Bruce, set free by 
Edward III., had no children. He left the kingdom to 
his nephew, Eobert Stuart (1371-1390). His successor, 
Robert III. (1390-1405), was a tool in the hands of the 
Scotch lords. His son was captured by the English and 
kept in custody by Henry IV. The father died of grief, 
and Scotland was given up to anarchy. 

17. Charles VI. (1380-1422). — Charles VI. was a boy of 
twelve when called to succeed his father on the throne 
of France. His uncles ruled the realm for their own 
aggrandizement. The times were troubled in all Chris- 
tendom. Schism and corruption were doing their work. 
There was sedition in Paris, and Flanders, which had been 
subdued, again rose under Philip van Arteveld, a son of 
Jacob, who had been slain as a traitor by his own towns- 
men. Philip, after holding his power a long while, was 
defeated and slain at Eosebecque (1382). Charles restored 
order in his kingdom and chose ministers in place of his 
uncles. Losing his reason (1392), his uncles again seized 
the power. They quarrelled among themselves, and the 
country had to bear the penalty of their personal jeal- 
ousies and revenges. 

18. Henry V. (1413-1422) ; Agincourt.— Henry IV. of 
England died after a short reign. His son, Henry V., 
succeeded him. He had been a wild youth, but on as- 
cending the throne he rose to the responsibility of his 
office and was loved by the people. His father had 

15. Who was proclaimed king 1 ? What followed the proclamation ? 16. De- 
scribe the course of events in Scotland. 17. Describe events in France and 
Flanders during the reign of Charles YI. 18. What of Henry Y. of England ? 



a.d. 1413-1431] The Middle Ages. 335 

advised liim that the best way to secure the throne to 
his house was by a war with France. Henry embarked 
at the head of a gallant army to claim the French 
crown. A victory at Agincourt was similar in its charac- 
ter and its results to those of Crecy and Poitiers. France 
was in convulsion, owing to the jealousies of the rival 
houses of Burgundy and Armagnac. The Burgundians 
took Paris (1418) and slew the Count of Armagnac and 
his partisans. Affairs went from bad to worse. There 
were slaughterings, revolts, seditions on all sides, when 
Henry of England married the daughter of Charles VI., 
and was acknowledged heir presumptive to the crown 
to the exclusion of the Dauphin. But the premature 
death of both sovereigns put an end to this scheme. 

19. Henry VI. (1422-1471); Charles VII. (1422- 
1461); Joan of Arc. — Henry VI. was proclaimed king 
in his cradle, his uncles, the Dukes of Bedford and 
Gloucester, acting as protectors. The Dauphin, Charles, 
was proclaimed king of France, of which he only held 
a portion. The English passed over the land as they 
pleased. Suddenly at Orleans a young peasant girl, Joan 
of Arc, sought the king and announced that Heaven had 
commissioned her to free Orleans and have him crowned 
at Eheims (1429). And so events proved. Joan rallied 
France and beat the English. The king was crowned at 
Eheims, and Charles, refusing to lose Joan's services, 
kept her with the troops. She was captured while de- 
fending Compiegne, found guilty of witchcraft, and 
brutally burnt at the stake in Eouen (1431). 

20. End of the Hundred Years' War. — Joan had done 
her work, however. The English were beaten, the fac- 
tions had ceased in France, and the authority of the throne 

19. Why did Homy invade France ? What was the result of the invasion ? 
How did the invasion end *? 20. What followed in France and England on the 
deaths of the monarchs ? Tell of Joan of Arc and her exploits. What befell her ? 



336 History of the World. [a.d. 1431-1453 

was restored. Charles entered Paris in triumph. Peace 
was made, the English retaining of all their conquests only 
Guienne and Normandy (1444). Henry VI. married Mar- 
garet of Aujon, daughter of Bene the Good. The marriage, 
added to the disasters in France, caused great discontent in 
England. Gloucester's rule was popular, though his ad- 
ministration was had. He had set James I. of Scotland at 
liberty (1424). James, in violation of his promise, helped 
the Erench and invaded England, when he was slain by his 
own barons. Gloucester's failures caused his removal from 
office, and he died in prison. Next Normandy fell to the 
Erench (1450), and Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, was slain 
in a vain attempt to save Guienne (1453). To England 
there now only remained Calais at the close of the Hun- 
dred Years' War. 

21. Jack Cade. — De la Pole, Henry's minister, was ac- 
cused of treason and perished on the scaffold. An insur- 
rection arose under the leadership of Jack Cade, an Irish 
adventurer, who defeated the royal troops at Blackheath. 
He entered London and held it for days. But dissensions 
broke out among his followers ; they dispersed and he was 
slain. Bichard, Duke of York, now claimed the throne, 
his mother being daughter of the Duke of Clarence. With 
this originated the Wars of the Boses, so called from the 
symbols of the rival houses of York and Lancaster, and 
English civil strife began just as that in France had 
ceased and the kingdom was quieting down under a strong 
and wise rule. 

What was the result of Joan's heroism ? Give the course of events in Eng- 
land and Scotland. The result to England of the Hundred Years' War ? 21. 
What of Jack Cade ? How did the Wars of the Roses originate 'I 



a.d. 1273-1278] The Middle Ages. 337 

CHAPTER III. 
GERMANY, SWITZERLAND, AND ITALY. 

The imperial power in Germany is frittered away by divisions and the 
multiplication of fiefs.- Three families especially contend for it, and it finally 
falls to the House of Austria. Switzerland secures its freedom and becomes a 
republic. Italy shakes aloof from the empire and divides up into independent 
republics and monarchies. 

SECTION I. Germany. 

1. Rudolph of Hapsburg (1273-1291).— The disturbances 
and long vacancy in the Holy See only corresponded to 
similar disturbances and a long interregnum in the Romano- 
Germanic Empire. Gregory X. (1271-1276) came to the 
rescue of the Church, while Rudolph of Hapsburg (1273- 
1291) tried to restore the empire. Rudolph was elected 
emperor and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle. He put a stop 
to private feuds and demolished the castles of the refrac- 
tory nobles. Public tranquillity was restored and the union 
of the Papacy and empire cemented. 

2. House of Austria.— Ottocar II. (1253-1278), King of 
Bohemia, and master of Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and 
Carniola, protested against the election of Rudolph. Van- 
quished, he was forced to surrender his possessions, save 
Bohemia and Moravia. He again took up arms, but was 
defeated and slain at Marchfeld (1278). Rudolph married 
one of his daughters to Ottocar's heir, giving Austria and 
the surrounding countries to his eldest son, Albert. Thus 
began the powerful house of Austria. 

3. Albert of Austria. — On Rudolph's death his eldest son 
was set aside in favor of Adolph of Nassau, a petty prince, 
who was deposed by the diet and slain by Albert of Austria, 

1. How fared Italy and Germany ? What of Rudolph of Hapsburg and his 
work ? 2. Who opposed Rudolph and with what result ? How did the house of 
Austria begin 1 3. What happened on the death of Rudolph ? 



338 _ History of the World. [ a .d. 1308-1327 

who bought his election. Once elected, he strove to in- 
demnify himself by violence and exaction. Switzerland, 
weaiy of the Hapsburgs, strove to throw off the yoke. Al- 
bert was assassinated by his nephew, John of Suabia (1308). 

4. Houses of Wittelsbach (1314-1410) and Luxembourg 
(1308-1437). — The Count of Luxembourg was next chosen 
and elected under the name of Henry VII. (1308-1313). 
He endowed his family with the hereditary kingdom of 
Bohemia, which for more than a century constituted their 
support. He mixed himself up in the Guelph and Ghibe- 
line contest in Italy, and obtained the imperial crown, but 
lost his life in the acquisition (1313). His son, John of 
Bohemia, who afterwards fell at Crecy, cared less for the 
empire than for deeds of arms. He left the crown to be 
contended for by Frederick, son of Albert of Austria, and 
Louis of Bavaria. Louis finally conquered on the field of 
Muhldorf (1322) ; Frederick and one of his brothers were 
made prisoners, and Louis was recognized as emperor. 
The pope, John XXII. , forbade him exercise any act of 
authority before presenting himself before the pontiff, that 
his election might be examined and his cause judged. Such 
a demand was not without precedent, and the papal decision 
in such matters was a preventive of wars. Louis was will- 
ing enough, but some of his supporters were not. A rup- 
ture occurred. The pope excommunicated and deposed 
Louis. Louis effected a reconciliation with his rival, whom 
he made his colleague, and, passing into Italy, mixed him- 
self up with Italian quarrels and set up an anti-pope (1327). 

5. For twenty years there was enmity between Louis and 
Avignon. There were leagues formed against him in Ger- 
many, and John of Bohemia, who had lost his sight but 
not his warlike spirit, took arms against him. Louis was 

4. What of Henry TIL and Bohemia ? What befell him in Italy ? What fol- 
lowed on his death 1 What action did the pope take ? How did Louis act 1 
5. What resulted from the quarrel between pope and emperor ? 



a.d. 1347-1356] The Middle Ages. 339 

struck with apoplexy (1347), leaving the field open to va- 
rious aspirants. His family stood aloof. Half a century 
later (1400) a member of his house of Wittelsbach, Ro- 
bert, his great-granclnephew, became emperor. Before and 
after him came princes of the house of Luxembourg. 

6. The Golden Bull (1356) ; Charles IV. and his two 
Sons (1349-1437). — A year before the death of Louis 
some of the electors had enthroned Charles of Luxem- 
bourg, son of John of Bohemia. He was only recognized 
three years later, his competitors then retiring. He en- 
riched his hereditary kingdom of Bohemia, built magnifi- 
cent palaces in Prague, his capital, erected an archiepis- 
copal see there and a flourishing university. He was an 
enlightened monarch ; loved science and letters, and often 
attended the public discussions. During his reign the 
kingdom of Aries was lost to Germany and given to the 
Dauphin of France, the emperor's nephew. In Italy the 
regal rights were alienated. In Germany the " Golden 
Bull," so called from its seal, sanctioned the indepen- 
dence of the great vassals of the crown. It was promul- 
gated by Charles "in the diet of Metz (1356). It reduced 
the number of electors to seven — the three archbishops of 
Cologne, Mayence, and Treves, the King of Bohemia, the 
Duke of Saxony, the Margrave of Brandenburg, and the 
Count Palatine of the Rhine. The electoral territories 
were declared indivisible, the persons of the electors in- 
violable, their sentences irrevocable. They could convene 
without the consent of the prince, to resist, judge, and de- 
pose him. 

7. Charles himself was elector as King of Bohemia ; 
his youngest son, Sigismund, as Margrave of Branden- 
burg. To secure the empire to Wenceslaus, his eldest son, 

6. What was the character of Charles IV. ? For what is Ms reign memorable? 
What was the " Golden Bull"? What were the provisions of the Golden Bull? 
Did it tend to weaken or strengthen imperial authority 1 



340 History of the World. [a.d. 1356-1419 

Charles bribed the other electors at a cost of one hundred 
thousand florins. Wenceslaus was made emperor, only to 
be deposed for his misconduct by virtue of the very pro- 
visions of his father's " Golden Bull." 

8. Anarchy. — Wenceslaus (1378-1400) was in every sense 
a bad sovereign. He sanctioned private feuds, lived a 
shameless life, and martyred St. John Nepomuk for re- 
fusing to disclose the secrets of the confessional (1393). 
Being deposed by the majority of the electors, Eobert of 
Bavaria was chosen in his place. Eobert was defeated in 
Italy, and, finding Germany beyond his control, died of 
grief (1410). Three rival emperors succeeded him — Wen- 
ceslaus of Bohemia, his brother Sigismund, and their cou- 
sin-german, Josse of Moravia — each controlling a number of 
votes. At this time, too, there were three popes in the 
field. The death of Josse prevented the outbreak of a 
bloody war. Wenceslaus ceded his rights to his brother, 
who was then accepted by all (1411). 

9. War of the Hussites (1416-1434) ; the Emperor Sig- 
ismund (1411-1437). — Sigismund was anxious to restore 
unity to the Church. Through his aid the Council of 
Constance was convened, which healed the schism. The 
sentence of the council on John Huss and Jerome of 
Prague roused their party in Bohemia and led to a gen- 
eral outbreak. Ziska the One-eyed, a veteran soldier, took 
command of the heretics and organized them into a for- 
midable force. They built a city on a mountain near 
Prague, which they called Tabor and themselves Tabor- 
ites, the Catholics being Philistines, Idu means, or Moab- 
ites. They fell upon Prague and sacked it, committing 
fearful atrocities. Wenceslaus died at the news (1419). 
Sigismund was routed by Ziska at Deutschbrod. Ziska 

7. How did Wenceslaus come to the throne ? 8. Describe the reign of Wences- 
laus. What of Eobert of Bavaria and his successors 1 9. What was Sigismund's 
desire 1 How did the Hussites receive the decision of the Council of Constance ? 



a.d. 1419-1439] • The Middle A ges. 341 

then offered the crown of Bohemia to King Jagellon of 
Poland, a recent convert, but Jagellon refused it. 

10. Peace of Iglau. — Ziska maintained his power till his 
death (1424), after which dissensions crept in among the 
ranks of his followers. They split into four parties, the 
most fanatical choosing Procopius Eaza as leader. He 
gained three great victories over the Catholic crusaders 
and imperialists. The Council of Basle granted the use 
of the chalice to the most moderate of the Bohemians, 
one of whose demands was for communion in both kinds. 
This won them over to the Catholic cause, and they, the 
Calixtines, undertook to vanquish their brethren. This 
they effected at Boehmischbrod, verifying the saying of 
Sigismund that "only Bohemians can beat Bohemians." 
The peace of Iglau put an end to a war that, like all re- 
ligious wars, was characterized by the most inhuman atro- 
cities (1434). 

11. Albert II. — Sigismund died soon after. Though, the 
last of the Luxembourgs, three existing reigning families 
owe their fortune to him : those of Saxony, Hohenzollern, 
and Austria. He wedded his daughter to Albert V. of 
Austria, who succeeded him on the thrones of Bohemia 
and Hungary (1437), and in the following year received 
the imperial crown as Albert II. From that day Austria 
maintained the pre- eminence in Germany down to the 
war of 1866. Albert opposed the private wars, and in 
the diet of Nuremberg had the empire divided into six 
circuits, with an independent and strongly-supported judge 
at the head to maintain or enforce peace. He Avas about 
to attack the Turks with the full force of the empire 
when he died (1439). His posthumous son inherited his 
kingdom, but the empire fell to his cousin, Frederick III. 

10. What happened on the death of Ziska? What concession was made at the 
Council of Basle ? What was the result of the concession 1 11. How did Aus- 
tria gain preponderance in Germany 1 Describe the reign of Albert II. 



342 History of the Would. [ A .d. 1807-1315 

(1440-1493), whose long reign was of great benefit to 
Germany. 

SECTION II. Switzerland and Italy. 

12. Liberation of Switzerland (1307-1450). — Switzer- 
land enters into prominence in European history at the 
last epoch of the middle ages, during the interregnum in 
the German Empire. When the house of Hohenstaufen 
fell (1268) all its vassals swore fealty to the emperor. 
Many petty Swiss nobles, favored by their natural situa- 
tion, maintained a practical independence, which they jea- 
lously guarded. Rudolph of Hapsburg was one of these. 
His virtues and ability caused him to be chosen magis- 
trate by his neighboring nobles and cities, and by the 
peasants of the three forest cantons of Schwytz, Uri, 
and Unterwalden. When elected to the empire Eudolph 
respected the liberties of his former clients. But after 
his death his son Albert, driven from the throne and 
not content with Austria, looked upon his father's Swiss 
clients as his own subjects. On becoming emperor he 
sent bailiffs into the cantons, whose exactions so exasperat- 
ed the Swiss that they rose and finally succeeded in ex- 
pelling the Austrians (1308). 

13. Battle of Morgarten. — When Louis of Bavaria suc- 
ceeded to the empire he sanctioned the league of the three 
cantons and guaranteed their liberties, they supporting 
him against his rival, Frederick the Handsome, son of 
Albert of Austria. Frederick sent his brother Leopold, 
at the head of an overwhelming force, to reduce them. 
The invaders were caught and destroyed in the defile of 
Morgarten (1315). Peace being made, the three cantons 
formed a perpetual league for mutual defence and pro- 

12. Describe the condition of Switzerland in the thirteenth century. What 
of Rudolph of Hapsburg and the Swiss ? What followed on Rudolph's death 1 
13. Tell of the battle of Morgarten and the league of the three cantons. 



a.d. 1315-1444] The Middle Ages. 343 

tection. The league was sanctioned by the Emperor 
Louis. 

14. Sempach and Hssfels. — The other cantons entered the 
league gradually. In 1353 there were eight of them. 
They so continued to the close of mediaeval times, when 
the number was increased to thirteen, and in modern 
times to twenty-two. The dukes of Austria viewed with 
jealous eye the growth of a confederation that was a con- 
stant menace to them. Leopold, a nephew of him who 
was beaten at Morgarten, gathered his knights against 
them, but was routed and slain near Sempach (Lucerne, 
1386). Three years later another victory at Naefels 
(Glaris) secured the independence of the confederation 
and forced Duke Albert III. to sign the peace of Zurich 
(1389). 

15. Internal Dissensions. — There were now eight confede- 
rate cantons. So much fighting gave them a love for 
war, and, having defeated the invader, they quarrelled 
among themselves. Zurich joined Austria under Frederick 
III. (1442), and the Swiss were defeated by the allies 
under command of the French Dauphin, after an heroic 
struggle near Basle (1444). An honorable peace was the 
result, and after this the Swiss held together against 
Charles the Bold, and later still against Maximilian. 

SECTION HI. Italy: Struggle of the Guelphs and Ghibelines. 

16. Plans of the Guelphs. — The purpose of the Italian 
Guelphs was to secure the independence of Italy while 
acknowledging the suzerainty of the empire, and to main- 
tain local freedom and self-government to their cities and 
states. Italian history during this period is one long 
struggle against the German Empire, supported on the soil 

14. How did the league of the cantons expand? What happened at Sempach 
andNffifels? 15. What dissensions arose in Switzerland? Against whom did 
the Swiss contend 1 16. What was the purpose of the Guelphs in Italy ? 



344 History of the World. [ a .d. 1282-1343 

by a party which power and intrigue can always command. 
Pope Gregory X. tried to reconcile the two parties, and 
under the mild sway of Budolph of Hapsburg thought 
to establish a general confederation of the Italian states 
under the presidency of the popes and the temporal di- 
rection of an imperial delegate. 

17. The Sicilian Vespers. — The narrowness and cruelty 
of Charles of Anjou, vicegerent of Central Italy, defeated 
this wise scheme. His harshness brought on conspiracy, 
hatched by John of Procida, once the physician of Man- 
fred, the father of the slaughtered Conradin. On Easter 
Monday, 1282, the sound of the vesper bell was the signal 
for the outbreak. The people arose and slew the French, 
the massacre being known as "the Sicilian Vespers." 
Charles' vengeance was foiled. Loria destroyed his fleet, 
his son was captured, and he himself died soon after. 
The Ghibeline triumph spread to Milan, to Liguria, in 
all directions. But the defeat of Pisa by Genoa and 
Florence brought about a Guelph reaction. 

18. Robert of Anjou (1309-1343).— Disturbance and fac- 
tions among the Ghibelines favored the Guelph reaction. 
Pedro of Aragon, the ally of John of Procida, restored Sicily 
to Charles' son. But the Sicilians, hating the French, 
crowned Frederick, Pedro's third son, and his dynasty 
ruled there for a century. On the death of Charles II. 
his second son, Bobert, was proclaimed king. The Avi- 
gnon popes appointed the King of Naples imperial vicar in 
the States of the Church. Thus Bobert exercised both 
the temporal power in Bome and the right of protection 
throughout Central Italy. Armed with this authority, he 
strove to recover Sicily, but failed. He was, however, a 
wise and gentle king, and a great patron of literature and 

What was the desire of Gregory X.1 17. Describe the Sicilian Vespers 
and what led to it. What followed the Vespers ? 18. Tell of the struggle be- 
tween the rival dynasties. Describe the reign of Robert. 



a.d. 1385-1402] The Middle Ages. 345 

the arts. On his death his granddaughter Joanna was 
crowned Queen of Naples. Her conduct and the struggles 
of her rivals for the throne racked the kingdom for forty 
years. 

19. The Viscontis. — The wisdom of Cardinal Albornoz 
saved Eome from the excesses of Rienzi. But further 
north factions and the tyranny of the powerful nobles 
had full play. The Viscontis tyrannized in Lombardy. 
They were finally captured by their nephew, Gian Galeaz- 
zo, who, buying the title of Duke of Milan from the Em- 
peror Wenceslaus, governed the city (1385-1402). The Vis- 
conti family, always hostile to French influence, appropri- 
ated Parma, took Verona, and destroyed the republic of 
Pavia. They were only checked in their aggrandizing 
schemes in the west by John Palseologus, Marquis of 
Montferrat, and in the east by the Este family, lords of 
Ferrara, the G-onzagas of Mantua, and the growing repub- 
lic of Venice. 

20. The Maritime Cities. — The Crusades favored and de- 
veloped maritime enterprise in the seaports of the Medi- 
terranean. Pisa, Genoa, and Venice rapidly grew into 
wealth and power. Pisa, the great Ghibeline city, was 
destroyed by Florence and her rival, Genoa, at Meloria. 
Genoa proceeded to extend her sway among the ports of 
the Levant and of the Black Sea. The restoration of the 
Greeks favored Genoa as against Venice. The rival cities 
warred against each other to their nratual detriment, the 
first war lasting twenty-five years (1257-1282). 

21. Venetian Ascendency. — Next century they renewed 
the struggle in the Black Sea, in which the Genoese gained 
the victory at Pola. But matters were reversed by the 
skill of the Venetian admiral, Pisani, who had been impri- 

19. Tell of the Viscontis. Describe the troubles in the north of Italy. 20. 
How did the Crusades help Italy ? What cities grew into power in consequence ? 
What dissensions arose ? 21. How did Yenice triumph ? 



346 History of the World. [ a .d. 1382-1458 

soned for losing Pola, but was released in time to save his 
state. He compelled the Genoese to surrender at Chioggia 
(1380), and the treaty of Turin secured the triumph of 
the Venetians (1382). His great rivals were the celebrated 
brothers Doria. 

22. Genoa was a turbulent city and never submitted 
long to any rule. Venice, though nominally a republic, be- 
came a powerful aristocracy, extended her sway along the 
coasts and among the islands, and was only checked on the 
mainland by the dukes of Milan. 

23. Extinction of the Republics; Rise of the Principali- 
ties. — Florence long remained the stronghold of the 
Guelphs, a democratic republic, and an enlightened pa- 
tron of arts and manufactures. But in the fifteenth cen- 
tury she fell under the control of the powerful Medici 
family, who practically assumed sovereign sway. Milan in 
like manner was ruled by the Sforzas, and Rome was threat- 
ened by the Neapolitans. 

24. Southern Italy was through all this period the bat- 
tle-ground of rival invaders. Her independent states were 
divided, and thus left themselves an easy prey to foreign 
interference. The foreign aspirants to monarchy were for 
the most part distinguished by shameful lives, varied by 
cruelty and exactions on the people. Sicily restored mon- 
archical unity in the person of Alfonso, son of Ferdinand 
of Castile (1412), who in turn transmitted the Two Sici- 
lies to his son Ferdinand (1458). 

25. Thus Italy at the close of the middle ages was di- 
vided into independent principalities. In the centre of the 
states the patrimony of St. Peter was the best upholder of 
republican ideas and the freest from foreign interference. 

22. What was the government of Venice 1 23. What of Florence and the 
Medici ? What of Milan? 24. How fared Southern Italy and the kingdom of 
the Two Sicilies 1 25. What of Rome ? 



a.d. 1234-1252] The Middle Ages. 347 

CHAPTER IV. 
SPAIN— THE FIVE KINGDOMS. 

The history of Spain during this period presents an unbroken series of 
rivalries among the petty kingdoms, with an under tendency towards unity. 

1. Kingdom, of Navarre. — Northward, on both slopes of 
the western Pyrenees, lay the little kingdom of Navarre. 
On the extinction of the national dynasty of Aznar (1234) 
the counts of Champagne secured the crown by intermar- 
riage. Forty years later another marriage transferred the 
croAvn to Prance. Thus Philip the Fair and his three sons 
were kings of France and Navarre (1274-1328). For a long 
period the history of Navarre blends with that of France. 

2. Kingdoms of Aragon, Portugal, and Granada. — At the 
foot of the eastern Pyrenees was the small kingdom of 
Aragon, which enlarged its borders at the expense of the 
kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and aided by the constant 
turmoil in Italy. Portugal early devoted itself to agricul- 
ture at home, while it greatly enlarged its power and do- 
minion by maritime enterprise. In the southeast of the 
peninsula the kingdom of Granada, in Andalusia, was all 
that was left the Mohammedans of their Spanish con- 
quests. Granada would have succumbed earlier only for 
aid from Africa and the dissensions among the Spanish 
princes. 

3. Kingdom of Castile. — By concpiest and inheritance 
St. Ferdinand had secured to Castile the greater part of 
Spain, large revenues, and valuable seaports. His son, Al- 
fonso X., the Wise (1252-1284), aspired to the empire of 
Germany. He was more a man of letters than a ruler, and 
his people agreed to depose him. This led to civil war. 

1. Give the early history of Navarre and its changes, 2. How did Aragon 
grow? What of Portugal ? What was left to the Mohammedans ? 3. Who se- 
cured the preponderance to Castile ? What of Ferdinand's son, Alfonso ? 



348 History of the World. [ A .d. 1252-1369 

His second son, Sancho, strove for the throne to the ex- 
clusion of the eldest line. This involved war with France, 
while he had already to repel the Moors. Sancho tri- 
umphed, but his death and the minority of his son cre- 
ated new disturbances. The young king died (1312) on 
attaining his majority, leaving the crown to Alfonso XI., 
a child three years old. More wars ensued ; the nobles 
enriched themselves at the expense of the crown ; and the 
Moors recovered some of their lost ground. 

4. Alfonso XI. — When fourteen Alfonso seized the power, 
massacred several princes, entrusted the finances to a Jew 
and the administration to two favorites. This was the 
signal for fresh revolts, when an invasion of the Meri- 
nides, invited over by the King of Granada, united the 
Castilian nobles. Portugal and Castile joined hands against 
the common enemy, and the allies won a brilliant victory 
at Rio Salado (1340). Alfonso then returned to his exac-. 
tions and disorders. After capturing Algeziras he perished 
under the walls of Gibraltar (1350). 

5. Pedro the Cruel (1350-1369).— Alfonso XI. left ten 
children by his clandestine union with Leonora Guzman. 
The eldest of these was Henry of Transtamare. His only 
legitimate son was Pedro, rightly named the Cruel. Nor 
were his vices restricted to cruelty. He was supported by 
the Black Prince ; but on the retirement of the latter Du 
Guesclin advanced Henry of Transtamare and set him on 
the throne of Castile (1369). Pedro was slain by Henry 
at the battle of Montiel. 

6. Pedro's Contemporaries. — It was a period of cruel 
kings in Spain. Navarre was ruled by Charles the Bad 
(1349-1386) ; Aragon had a Pedro IV., cruel as his name- 
sake of Castile. In a turbulent reign of fifty-one years 

Describe the civil wars in Castile and their result. 4. How did Alfonso XI. 
use his power ? What befell him % 5. Who succeeded Alfonso? What of Henry 
of Transtamare ? 6. Describe the rulers of Spain and Portugal. 



a.d. 1336-14531 The Middle Ages. 349 

(1336-1387) he prepared the ruin of his race, which be- 
came extinct in 1410. Portugal was not behindhand. The 
harshness of Alfonso IV. (1325-1357) drove his son Pedro 
into revolt, and Affonso died of grief (1357). Pedro made 
a wise and strong ruler. 

7. The House of Transtamare. — After the death of Pe- 
dro the Cruel, Henry II. of Transtamare was acknowledged 
king by all Castile. He had as enemies the King of Por- 
tugal, grandson of Alfonso XL, and the dukes of Lancas- 
ter and York, who were sons-in-law of Pedro. But he 
made an ally of France, and his ten years' reign (1369- 
1379) won for him among his people the title of the Mag- 
nificent. His son, Juan I., beat the English at Guienne 
and the Duke of Lancaster in Spain, but was himself 
beaten and nearly slain by the Portuguese at Aljubarrota 
(1385). His death left his son, Henry III. (1390-1406), a 
minor and exposed Castile to new troubles. Henry gave 
great promise, but died at the age of twenty-six, and was 
succeeded by his infant son, Juan II. (1406-1454). The 
Cortes offered the crown to Henry's brother Ferdinand, 
but he stood faithful to his trust as guardian. He de- 
feated the Moors in two engagements. 

8. Juan II. — Called to the vacant throne of Aragon, 
Ferdinand confided the regency to the queen mother. The 
transfer was an evil one. She treated with the Moors, 
and kept her son so confined as to render him incapa- 
ble of reigning. His favorite, Alvaro de Luna, came to 
the front when occasion demanded. He defeated both 
the Moors and domestic cabals, and ruled with a firm 
hand for thirty years until his weak master signed his 
death-warrant (1453). Juan followed him to the grave in 
the following year and left an equally feeble successor be- 

7. What followed on the death of Pedro % What title did Henry earn ? Tell 
of Juan I. What followed on Juan's death 1 8. What happened during the 
minority of Juan II. ? Tell of Alvaro de Luna and his fate. 



350 History of the World. [ a .d. 1410-1415 

hind him in the person of his son, Henry IV. He left a 
daughter, however, Isabella, who was destined to retrieve 
the fortunes of her house and of all Spain. 

9. Ferdinand and Isabella. — The dynasty of Aragon 
became extinct in Martin (1410). After two years the 
electors, advised by St. Vincent Ferrer, chose Ferdinand, 
the first regent of Castile, to be their king. Ferdinand 
reigned in' peace over Aragon, Sardinia, and Sicily (1412- 
1416). He was succeeded by his son, Alfonso V., the 
Magnanimous (1416-1458), who by conquest and adoj)tion 
became also King of Naples. Juan, a younger son of 
Ferdinand, married the daughter of Charles the Noble 
(1425) and ascended the throne of Navarre, which he re- 
fused to relinquish on the death of his wife (1451). As 
Juan II. the inheritance of his brother Alfonso, who had 
no legitimate offspring, fell to him. At his deatli he 
transmitted his crowns to his youngest son, Ferdinand 
the Catholic, who had married Isabella of Castile and 
reigned with her. From this union came the union of 
Spain, the overthrow of the Moslem power in Spain, and, 
indirectly, the discovery of the New World (1492). 

10. House of Avisa in Portugal. — In Portugal the son of 
Pedro the Just dying without issue, John, the grand 
master of the order of Avisa, one of Pedro's illegitimate 
sons, contrived to have himself proclaimed king (1383). 
The victory of Aljubarrota in the following year secured 
the crown to him against the claims of Castile. He ar- 
ranged a determination of the boundaries of the two king- 
doms. Foreseeing Portugal's destiny as a maritime power, 
he embarked for Ceuta, a strong post and refuge for Mus- 
sulman corsairs on the African coast, took it, and convert- 
ed it into a Portuguese station (1415). 

9. How came Ferdinand to the throne of Castile? What was his domain? 
What conquest did Alfonso Y. make ? What came of the marriage of Ferdi- 
nand and Isabella ? 10. Describe events in Portugal and the exploits of John. 



a.d. 1415-1431] The Middle Ages. 351 

11. Portuguese Discoveries and Conquests. — His son, Hen- 
ry the Navigator, ably seconded John's designs. From Al- 
garve Henry fitted out expeditions of discovery and explo- 
ration along the unknown coasts. At this time Jean de 
Bethen court, a Norman noble, had discovered the Cana- 
ries (1402) and been appointed viceroy over them "by Hen- 
ry III. of Castile. The Portuguese navigators discovered 
the Madeira Islands (1418), the Azores (1432), and all 
the African coast as far as Sierra Leone. 

12. King John lived to see the triumphs of his son 
and enjoy their reward. He died in 1433. Henry survived 
him thirty years, pursuing his enterprises under his bro- 
ther Edward and his nephew, Alfonso V. The latter pass- 
ed over to Africa to found permanent settlements, achieve 
new conquests, and perpetuate his uncle's work. Hence 
he acquired the name of Africanus. His reign (1438-1481) 
laid the foundation of prosperity for the three following 
reigns (John II., Emmanuel, and John III.), and Portu- 
gal during this period was one of the richest, happiest, 
and most enterprising of European states. 



CHAPTER V. 
SCANDINAVIA AND THE SLAVIC COUNTRIES. 

Northwabd three Scandinavian nations attempted union. Eastward, while 
Kussia remained under the sway of the Mongols, the Poles and Lithuanians 
together grew into power, and the Hungarians beat off the Turks, who sub- 
dued the other Slavs of the Danube. 

SECTION I. The Three Scandinavian Kingdoms. 

1. Union of Sweden and Norway. — By a law common to 
the Scandinavians women could not inherit the crown. 

11. Tell of Henry the Navigator and his work. Name important discoveries 
made about this time. 12. Why was Affonso Y. called Africanus ? How stood 
Portugal at this time ? What was happening in the north ? 



352 History of the World. [ a .d. 1319-1375 

Under this law the Norwegian dynasty became extinct 
after the death (1319) of the youngest son of Magnus the 
Lawgiver. Princesses, however, could transmit the crown 
to a son. By this means the vacant crown of Norway 
fell to Magnus VIII., a child of three, to whom the crown 
of Sweden had also fallen just at this time. On attain- 
ing his majority his rule was so stern that his discontent- 
ed subjects compelled him to share the power with his 
sons, Haco VII. in Norway, and Eric XII. in Sweden. 
The death of Eric transferred Sweden back to Magnus, 
whose cruelty again drove his subjects to offer the crown 
first to Haco and then to his nephew, Albert of Mecklen- 
burg. Haco let the fickle Swedes go, and married (1363) 
Margaret, daughter of Waldemar III. of Denmark. 

2. Denmark. — For a century and a half Denmark had 
been in a state of constant revolution and disturbance from 
outside, until finally royalty died out in an interregnum of 
fourteen years (1326-1340). Waldemar III. (1340-1375), 
notwithstanding his many great qualities, had hot the per- 
sistency needed to restore order in his distracted kingdom, 
and at his death it was little better off than at his accession. 
He was the last descendant of Estrita, sister of Canute the 
Great. 

3. Margaret (1363-1412).— The Danes offered the crown 
to Olaf, son of Margaret and Haco (1375). Haco died five 
years after and left the crown of Norway and his claims 
to the crown of Sweden to Olaf, then only ten years old. 
Margaret proved fully capable of maintaining her boy's 
rights and of governing the kingdoms with wisdom and 
firmness. But Olaf died at the age of seventeen, and with 
him expired the last royal family of Scandinavia. 

4. The benefits of Margaret's rule had been felt by the 

1. What was the law of succession in Scandinavia ? What of Magnus Till. ? 
What of Haco ? 2. What was the condition of Denmark ? Tell of Waldemar III. 
3. What followed on the death of Haco 1 Who maintained order ? 



a.d. 1389-1448] The Middle A ges. 353 

people, and both Denmark and Norway entreated her to re- 
main in power and bring np the new king. This was her 
sister's grandson, Eric of Pomerania, then only five years 
old. Margaret continued, to govern, and Sweden, restive 
under Albert of Mecklenburg, saw with envy the peace 
and. prosperity of its neighbors. Albert invaded. Marga- 
ret's kingdom, but was defeated and taken prisoner at 
Falkjoping. Sweden willingly passed under the sway of 
the queen (1389). 

5. Union of Calmar (1397). — Margaret now ruled the 
three kingdoms, and after a few years she resolved on 
bringing to a head a project she had long entertained. 
Assembling the deputies of the three kingdoms at Cal- 
mar, in Sweden, she had Eric solemnly y crowned and laid 
before the assembly the benefits to be derived from a union 
of the three kingdoms. It was thereupon agreed to unite 
the three kingdoms, in perpetuity, Under one monarch, 
who should visit each kingdom in turn, hear his subjects' 
complaints, and appoint the higher magistrates. Each 
country was to retain its laws and liberties, and all were 
to defend each other in case of attack on any one. Such 
a measure alone more than merits for its author the title 
of the "Semiramis of the North." 

6. Margaret's Successors. — Margaret continued to rule 
and reign over the Union for fifteen years. Eric, however, 
had neither the virtues nor the capacity of his aunt, and 
disaffection, in Sweden particularly, broke out soon after 
his accession to the throne. The old troubles began again. 
Eric's nephew, Christopher the Bavarian, restored order, 
but at his death Canutson, an ambitious Swedish noble, 
seized the thrones of Sweden and Norway. His tyranny 
wrought its own cure. Christian I. of Oldenburg (1448- 

4. What mission was entrusted to Margaret ? What of Albert of Mecklenburg? 
5. "What is meant by the Union of Calmar'? What title was bestowed on Marga- 
ret ? 6. Did the Union remain after her death ? How was the Union broken ? 



354 History of the World. [a.d. 1333-1370 

1481), being elected by the Danes, acknowledged by the 
Norwegians and by the majority of the Swedes, soon re- 
established the Scandinavian monarchy and the Union 
of Oalmar (1458). 

SECTION II. THe Enslaved Slavs. 

7. The Russians; Ivan III. — The Russians, after their 
separation from Catholic unity, remained under the sway 
of the Mongols, and it was only under Ivan III. (1462- 
1505) that they obtained relief. He changed the Mon- 
gol tyranny for his own, and founded the Muscovite auto- 
cracy at the sacrifice of every vestige of popular and re- 
ligious liberty. 

8. The Bulgarians ; Stephen. — On both banks of the 
Danube arose the kingdom of Bulgaria in the thirteenth 
century. In the fourteenth Servia, under Stephen Dushan 
(1333-1356), conquered Bulgaria, Macedon, and Albania, 
Stephen taking the title of Emperor of the Servians, 
Albanians, and Greeks. These countries had repulsed the 
Mongols and freed themselves from the Hungarians and 
Byzantine emperors. They were sharers in the Greek 
schism. 

9. The Poles; Casimir the Great. — Hungary and Poland 
had been devastated by the Mongol invasions, which when 
they passed left a succession of internal and dynastic 
troubles. The accession of Casimir III. (1333-1370) put 
an end to anarchy in Poland after a lapse of nearly a cen- 
tury. He was an able prince, who made his power respect- 
ed at home and abroad. Though he lost Silesia, he gained 
Eed Eussia, or Galicia. He drew up a code of laws, the 
"Universal Statute," for his people, which, with the wis- 
dom of his administration, gained for him the title of 

What did Christian I. accomplish ? 7. Who freed Eussia from the Mongols ? 
What dynasty did Ivan found ? 8. When was Bulgaria made a kingdom 1 What 
of Stephen Dushan ? 9. How stood Poland and Hungary 1 Tell of Casimir III. 



a.d. 1384-1410] The Middle Ages. 355 

Great. By these laws the nobles alone shared with the 
king political power, but the peasants enjoyed civil liberty. 
Hence Casimir is also known as King of the Peasants. 
Louis the Great of Hungary succeeded him. Louis' daugh- 
ter, Hedwig, was crowned Icing by the Poles (1384), and 
by marrying Jagellon, Grand Duke of Lithuania (1386), 
brought power and happiness to herself and her people. 

10. The Lithuanians ; Ladislaus Y. — The Lithuanians 
clung stubbornly to paganism down to the end of the 
fourteenth century. When Jagellon, their prince, solicit- 
ed the hand of Hedwig he promised to become a Christian. 
He was ugly and ill-favored in appearance. Nevertheless 
Hedwig married him ; Lithuania, joined to Poland, immedi- 
ately lifted it into one of the great powers of Europe ; 
and Jagellon, who was baptized Ladislaus, shoAved once 
again what great and noble qualities of mind and heart 
can be combined in a misshapen body. Ladislaus V. con- 
verted his own Lithuanians and refused the kingdom of 
Bohemia, offered him by the heretical Hussites. He dealt 
a great blow at the Teutonic Knights at Tannenberg (1410), 
who were trespassing on his rights. His dynasty reigned in 
Poland for two centuries (1386-1573). 

11. Hungary; Louis the Great (1342-1382).— In the 
thirteenth century the Arpad line became extinct in Hun- 
gary, and dissension reigned till the crowning of Charobert 
(1310). He was a great-grandson of Charles of Anjou, 
brother of St. Louis, and was descended from a Hunga- 
rian princess. He strengthened his rule for the benefit of 
his successor, Louis, who also inherited Poland. Louis' 
long reign was devoted to wars in all directions. In his 
wars, however, he did not neglect the arts of peace, and 
industry and commerce flourished in his domains, while 

9. By what title is Casimir known 1 Whom did his daughter marry 1 10. 
What resulted from the marriage 1 Describe the reign of Ladislaus V. 11. Who 
was Charobert 1 How did Louis reign ? 



356 History of the World. [a.d. 1387-1444 

the peasantry were protected against the exactions of the 
nobles. He was more popular with the Hungarians than 
with the Poles. His daughter Hedwig succeeded him in 
Poland, while his daughter Mary was crowned King of 
Hungary. 

12. Sigismund (1387-1437).— Troubles arose. Sigismund 
of Luxembourg married Mary. He was son of the Empe- 
ror Charles IV., brother of the Emperor Wenceslaus, and 
himself an aspirant to the empire. After a severe strug- 
gle he succeeded in establishing his power in Hungary, 
and gave his efforts to restoring peace in Bohemia, the 
empire, and the Church. His daughter Elizabeth married 
Albert of Austria, but Albert died the second year of his 
reign (1439). Elizabeth sought the assistance of Ladis- 
laus of Poland, son of Jagellon, for her infant son and 
his kingdom of Hungary, but Ladislaus was crushed at 
Varna (1444). 



CHAPTEB VI. 
THE GREEK EMPIRE AND THE OTTOMAN TURKS. 

The Greek Empire is successively ruled by seven princes of the Palreologi. 
After losing most of its possessions it is delivered by Tamerlane's victory over 
the Turks, only to fall with Constantinople. 

SECTION I. Turkish Conquests to the Battle of Angora (1299-1402). 

1. The Palseologi. — Michael Palaeologus, Greek Emperor 
of Mcsea, entered Constantinople -a conqueror after its 
capture from Baldwin II., the last of the Latin emperors 
(1261). Michael revived the Eastern Empire. He was 
threatened by the Turks in Asia Minor, in Europe by 

Who succeeded Louis ? 12. What happened in Hungary 1 How did Sig- 
ismund act ? What happened at Varna ? 1. Who was Michael Palgeologus 1 To 
what did he succeed ? 1. What of the Eastern and Western churches ? 



a. d. 1274-1380] The Middle Ages. 357 

the Latins — the one hating the Greeks because they were 
Christians, the other because they were schismatics. Mi- 
chael strove to reconcile the Eastern and Western churches, 
Avhose union was finally proclaimed at Lyons (1274). The 
Greeks, however, obstinately rejected the union. 

2. Andronicus the Elder, Michael's son and successor, 
began his reign by an open rupture with the Latin Church 
(1283). He taxed his subjects to buy off the enemies of 
the empire, and thus created general discontent. Constan- 
tinople was at the mercy of the mercenaries whom he 
hired to fight his battles. Finally be sought help from 
the Turks, but was dethroned by his grandson, Androni- 
cus the Younger (1328). The new emperor lost Asia 
Minor and died, leaving the crown to John Palseologus 
I., a boy nine years old, who reigned through half a cen- 
tury of disaster (1341-1391). 

3. Rival Emperors. — His grandson was John Cantacuze- 
nus, who soon assumed the imperial dignity and invested 
his son with it, so that the empire rejoiced in three rival 
emperors at once. Things came to such a woful pass 
that Cantacuzenus, hoping to better matters, abdicated ; 
but his encouragement of the Turks proved fatal to the 
tottering empire. 

4. Foundation of the Ottoman Empire (1299) ; taking of 
Gallipoli (1356). — A band of Turks was driven by the 
Mongol invasion from the borders of the Caspian Sea into 
Asia Minor. They were warlike and enterprising. The 
dismemberment of the sultanate of Iconium furnished 
their chief, Osman, or Ottoman, an opportunity of found- 
ing an independent state out of territory belonging to the 
Greeks (1299). Hence the name Osmanlis, or Ottomans. 
Orkhan (1326-1360), Osman's son and successor, took 

2. How did Andronicus the Elder act ? What befell him ? Tell of Andro- 
nicus the Younger and his successor. 3. What followed on the death of John 
Paleeologus ? 4. How was the Ottoman Empire founded % 



358 History of the World. [ a .d. 1330-1389 

Brusa, in Bithynia, and made it his capital. Four years 
later (1330) lie won Nicaea, and Asia Minor was lost to 
the Greeks. The Turkish sultan played with the Greeks, 
now as their ally, now as their enemy. One of his sons, 
sent to help John Cantacnzenus, treacherously seized the 
fortress of Gallipoli from the Greeks (1356), thus gaining 
for his countrymen a foothold in Europe. Orkhan had 
organized his followers for conquest, and one of his chief 
instruments was a body of infantry called Yeni Cheri 
(Janizaries), or New Troop. These were recruited from 
the robust Christian children taken captive or stolen. 
They were brought up as fanatical Turks and were taught 
the blindest obedience. They became the most formidable 
force in the Turkish ranks and were the bitterest foes of 
Christianity. 

5. Amurat I. ; taking of Adrianople (1361). — Amurat, 
or Murad, I. (1360-1389), succeeded Orkhan, and, taking 
Adrianople, made it his capital. The emperor, John Pa- 
lgeologus, was confined within the suburbs of Constanti- 
nople. He went to Italy to seek aid by reconciling the 
Greek with the Latin church, but was arrested for debt 
at Venice, and was only rescued by the filial devotion of 
his son. He next paid tribute to the sultan and accom- 
panied him in all his expeditions (1370). Christendom 
found defenders among the races dwelling along the 
banks of the Danube. The princes of Servia, Bosnia, 
and Bulgaria united against Amurat, but ' were finally 
crushed on the plains of Kossovo (1389). There Amurat 
himself fell, stabbed by a dying Servian. 

6. Bajazet I. (1389-1402). — Bajazet, or Bayazid, began 
his reign by stabbing his only brother, whose ambitious 
designs he dreaded. He became a great conqueror, both 

Describe the reign and conquests of Orkhan. Who -were the Janizaries ? 
5. Tell of Arnurat 1. What became of the Greek Empire ? What happened at 
Kossovo ? 6. What of Bajazet ? 



a.d. 1389-1396] The Middle A. ges. 359 

on the Danube and in Asia Minor, where he reduced the 
Seljukian emirs, hitherto independent. On the death of 
John Palaeologus, his son Manuel (1391-1425), who was 
held as hostage in the Turkish camp, escaped. Bajazet 
in revenge blockaded Constantinople, making the insolent 
boast that his steed would soon eat oats off the high 
altar of St. Peter's at Eome. Christendom was at last 
aroused, and more than one hundred thousand Crusaders 
poured down the valley of the Danube under the lead of 
Sigismund of Hungary and John of Nevers. Rashness 
and lack of discipline invited a fearful defeat at Nicopo- 
lis (1396), where Bajazet took a terrible revenge for the 
slaughter of his troops. He made good his conquests 
along the Danube, and was preparing to take Constanti- 
nople when a new invasion stayed his hand. 

SECTION II. The Mongol Empire. 

7. Timur. — Timur was born at Kesh, near Samarcand, 
in Independent Tartary (1336). He early aspired to re- 
viving the empire of Jenghis Khan, from whom he 
claimed descent. He began by conquering Jagatai, mak- 
ing Samarcand his capital. Calling the Mongol chiefs 
together, he mounted the throne of Jenghis Khan, pro- 
claimed himself lord of the East and of the West, and 
swore to bring the rulers of the world to his sway (1370). 

8. Timur's Conquests. — His career thenceforward was 
one series of bloody triumphs marked by the most cruel 
atrocities on the vanquished. He crossed the Caucasus, 
beat the khan of the Golden Horde, destroyed Azof, and 
sent one of his generals to ravage Poland. Turning back 
into Asia, he devastated India and strewed the banks of 

What was Bajazet's boast? What happened at Nieopolis? 7. Who was 
Timur and what was his ambition ? 8. Of what bind were Timur's conquests? 
Describe his march. 



360 History of the World. [ a ,d. 1399-1443 

the Ganges with ruins (1399). He invaded Syria and de- 
stroyed Damascus (1401) and Bagdad. 

9. Defeat of Bajazet. — Challenged by the proud Baja- 
zet, he poured down on Asia Minor. The rivals met near 
Angora, or Ancyra. Bajazet, to his cost, underrated his 
enemy, and after a long day's battle Timur gained a com- 
plete victory. Bajazet was captured and all Asia Minor 
fell into the hands of the conqueror, the emperor of 
Constantinople also paying him tribute. Bajazet died in 
captivity. Timur returned to Samarcand and was prepar- 
ing to conquer China when he died. His empire soon 
dissolved, but one of his great-grandsons founded the 
empire of the Great Mogul in India. 

SECTION III. The Ottoman Turks to the taking of Constantinople. 

10. Amurat II. (1421-1451) ; Hunyades. — Bajazet's cap- 
tivity was followed by a long civil war among his five 
sons. Manuel Palaeologus, instead of taking advantage 
of the dissension, sought alliance with Mohammed I., 
who triumphed over his brothers and left the throne to 
his son, Amurat II. Amurat laid siege to Constantino- 
ple (1422) because Manuel had set up a rival to him. 
He was compelled to withdraw, but only for a time. 
John Palaeologus II., son and successor of Manuel, paid 
tribute to the sultan by way of buying him off. Seeing 
this to be useless, he appealed to the West for aid, and 
was reconciled with the Latin Church at the Council of 
Florence (1439). The Crusaders came again to the res- 
cue under the lead of John Hunyades, prince of Transyl- 
vania. He cleared the Danube of the Turks and pur- 
sued them to Adrianople (1443). 

11. Scanderbeg. — And now the sultan lost one of the 

9. By whom was Timur opposed ? What of Angora ? What of Timur and his 
empire? 10. What followed Bajazet's captivity ? How did Manuel Pala?ologus 
act ? What happened at the Council of Florence ? What of John Huuyades ? 



a.d. 1443-1453] The Middle Ages. 361 

ablest of his generals — George Castriota, an Albanian no- 
ble, who had been captured by the Turks in childhood, 
and whose valor in the service gained him the title of 
Scanderbeg, or Chief Alexander. He never lost his Chris- 
tian sense or hope of recovering bis patrimony and inde- 
pendence. His defection was a great blow to Amurat. 
With a handful of followers he entered Croya, capital of 
Albania, and assumed . the government. He soon occu- 
pied the whole country and waged an unceasing and des- 
perate battle with the Turks. His successes, added to 
those of Hunyades, induced Amurat to sue for peace. It 
was granted and then violated by the Crusaders. Amu- 
rat marched against them and met them at Varna (1444). 
The valor of Hunyades first promised victory to the Chris- 
tians, but the rashness of Ladislaus of Poland lost them 
the day and himself his life. 

12. Hunyades, named regent of Hungary, without waiting 
for Scanderbeg, again attacked the Turks at Kossovo and 
slew great numbers, but could not conquer (1448). John 
Palgeologus survived this defeat only a few days. Scan- 
derbeg twice repulsed Amurat from the walls of Croya, 
and the sultan died charging his son to turn all his 
forces against Constantinople. 

13. Constantine XII. (1448-1453) and Mohammed II. 
(1451-1481). — Constantine XII. succeeded his brother, 
John Palseologus, and, like him, paid tribute to the 
Turks. Mohammed II. in return had solemnly guaran- 
teed the freedom of the empire. But he only dreamed of 
conquest, and after maturing his plans laid siege to Con- 
stantinople with an army of two hundred and fifty thou- 
sand men and a fleet of four hundred sail (April 6, 1453). 

14. Fall of Constantinople. — Europe was deaf to the 

11. Who was Scanderbeg? Tell of his exploits. What occurred at Varna? 
12. Describe the course of the struggle with the Turks. 13. What of Moham- 
med II. and Constantine XII. ? 



362 History of the World. [ a .d. 1453 

voice of the Sovereign Pontiff, and Constantinople could 
only muster about ten thousand defenders. The Greeks 
objected to even the few Latin allies who had obeyed the 
pontiff's call. The unwearied valor of Constantine alone 
upheld the courage of his people. The water defence of 
the city being at length overcome, Constantine prepared for 
the final assault in a manner worthy of a Christian hero. 
Overwhelming numbers prevailed over valor. The Otto- 
mans poured into the city (May 29, 1453). They wreak- 
ed a characteristic vengeance. The inhabitants were either 
sold in slavery, massacred, or tortured. Constantine fell in 
the breach, and his head was cut off and sent among the 
people of Asia as a trophy. The basilica of St. Sophia 
was turned into a mosque, and the Eastern Empire fell a 
prey to its dissensions, corruption, and schism, eleven hun- 
dred and twenty-three years after the foundation of Con- 
stantinople and nine hundred and seventy-seven years af- 
ter the fall of the Western Empire. 

14. What were the opposing forces at the siege of Constantinople ? Describe 
the siege and fall of the city. How did the Turks act ? What befell Constan- 
tine ? How long had the Eastern Empire lasted ? 



MODEEK HISTOEY. 



FIRST EPOCH. 

FROM THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE TO THE PROTESTANT 
REFORMATION. 

This epoch, known as the Jtenaissance, comprises the struggle between Chris- 
tendom and the sultans of Constantinople, the increase of the royal authority 
in some of the western states, and the great maritime discoveries of the Span- 
iards and Portuguese. 



CHAPTER I. 
STRUGGLE WITH THE TITHES. 

SECTION I. Mohammed II. (1451-1481). 

1. Defence of Belgrade. — The fair of Constantinople was 
a shock to all Europe ; but the Christian princes were too 
divided to unite against the common foe. Mohammed II. 
next marched on Belgrade with an army of one hundred 
and fifty thousand men. Belgrade was the bulwark of 
Hungary, and at the warning voice of the pope forty thou- 
sand Crusaders flew to its defence under the lead of Hun- 
yacles. They cut their way into the city, and, notwithstand- 
ing the most desperate efforts on the part of the Turks, 
Mohammed was beaten off with great loss. Hunyades and 
St. John Capistran, whose zeal had inspired the defence, 
died soon after. 

What is comprised in the Renaissance epoch ? 1. What followed the fall of 
Constantinople ? By whom was Belgrade defended ? How did the Turks fare ? 
What of Hunyades and St. John Capistran ? 

363 



364 History of the World. [ a .d. 1467-1481 

2. Scanderbeg. — Mohammed pursued his conquests in 
Greece, taking Thebes, Athens, Sparta, and other princi- 
palities. Albania, under the leadership of Scanderbeg, op- 
posed an invincible resistance. Scanderbeg made an alli- 
ance with Matthias Corvinus, son and successor of Hun- 
yades, with the republic of Venice, and the pope, Pius 
II., but had chiefly to rely on his own energy and re- 
sources. Twice he beat back the Turks from Oroya, his 
capital, and defeated them in numerous engagements. He 
held Albania till his death, and died with the sound of 
another victory ringing in his ears (January 17, 1467). 
With him perished the hopes of Albania. 

3. Death of Mohammed II. — Mohammed took Negropont 
from the Venetians, and then besieged Ehodes, held by the 
Knights Hospitalers. The siege became one of the events 
of European history. The Knights, under their grand 
master, D'Aubusson, for three months withstood the as- 
sault of overwhelming forces, and the Turks were at last 
compelled to retire. While Mohammed was contemplating 
new schemes of vengeance he died (1481). With his death 
came dissensions among the Turks, and his successor, Ba- 
yazid II., was deposed by the janizaries and poisoned by 
his son Selim, who, to secure the throne, massacred all 
his brothers and their children. 

SECTION II. The Renaissance in Italy. 

4. Revival of Learning. — The capture of Constantinople 
"by the Turks was a death-blow to the learning and civili- 
zation of that city. Many learned Greeks emigrated to 
Italy, where they were welcomed by Pope Nicholas V. 
They took with them precious monuments of learning, 
which, spreading abroad, caused a revival of literary and 

2. Trace the course of Mohammed's conquests. What of Scanderbeg ? What 
followed his death? 3. Describe the siege of Rhodes. What followed on the 
death of Mohammed ? 4. Mention one result of the fall of Constantinople. 



a.d. 1513-1521] Modern History. 365 

artistic tastes. From this sprang the Renaissance, or re- 
newal of letters and arts, by the study of the Greek and 
Latin models. 

5. The Age of Leo X. — The fourteenth century was im- 
mortalized by the great Italian poets, Dante and Petrarch. 
By the close of the fifteenth century the study of the an- 
cient classics had become general in the great cities, espe- 
cially in Italy. The celebrated family of the Medici, in 
Florence, gave a strong impulse to it. Pope Leo X. (1513- 
1521) has given his name to this golden age, whose splen- 
dor illumined the wane of the fifteenth century and the 
dawn of the sixteenth. It was the age of Ariosto and 
Tasso, of Guicciardini and Machiavelli, of Bramante and 
Michael Angelo, of Da Vinci and Perugino, Titian and 
Correggio, Paul Veronese, and many another master in 
literature and art. Spain, France, and the other coun- 
tries of Europe caught the fever, which, high and inspir- 
ing as it was in its zenith, in its decline developed into 
extravagance and engendered vicious tastes. Still, it aided 
materially to advance literature and art, and helped to 
promote the development of modern languages, literary 
tastes, and a love of study where there had formerly been 
merely a love of arms. 

6. Great Inventions. — The art of printing was discovered 
at this time by Gutenberg (1436). In 1442 the printing 
of the first Catholic Bible was begun. This art spread 
rapidly, multiplying, cheapening, and making accessible to 
the masses works that hitherto were of necessity the pro- 
perty of the few. The mariner's compass was perfected 
at the end of the fifteenth century, about which time also 
the use of fire-arms in battle was adopted. The discover- 
ing of the compass was preparatory to the maritime dis- 

What is meant by the Eenaissance ? 5. "What is meant by the age of Leo X. ? 
Mention some illustrious names of that age. How did the Eenaissance spread 1 
What of its decline? 6. Mention some of the inventions of the period. 



3C6 History of the World. [ a .d. 1461-1468 

coveries that soon followed, while the use of fire-arms 
completely changed the science of war. 



CHAPTER II. 
THE DECLINE OF FEUDALISM. 

In the latter half of the fifteenth century royal authority began to rise 
over feudalism. 

SECTION!. France: Louis XI. (1461-1483); Charles VIII. (1483-1498). 

1. Louis XI. — In France the two great fiefs of Brittany 
and Burgundy were almost independent of the crown. 
Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, was one of the 
richest and most powerful princes of the time. Louis XI., 
while still dauphin, had headed the revolt of the nobles 
against his father, Charles VII. On ascending the throne 
he resolved to crush his old allies. 

2. The League of the Public Weal. — The nobles, seeing 
his design, rushed to arms, Charles, Louis' former friend, 
at their head. They formed the " League of the Public 
Weal " (1465), and fought a drawn battle with the king at 
Montlhery. Louis, finding them too strong, made peace at 
the price of various concessions. These he recovered in 
the following year. In 1467 Charles, who on the death 
of his father (June 15) had become Duke of Burgundy, 
formed a new league against Louis, gained possession of 
the king's person, and only released him after extorting 
humiliating terms. In the following year he married Mar- 
garet, sister of Edward IV. of England, and reduced his 
rebellious subjects of Liege. He was now at the height 
of his power. 

1. How was power divided in France during the fifteenth century 1 W r hat 
monarch aimed at royal supremacy ? 2. What was the League of the Public 
Weal 1 Who was Louis' chief opponent ? Describe the progress of the struggle. 



a.d. 1463-1477] Modern History. 367 

3. Conflict between Louis and Charles the Bold. — There 
were further troubles in France between Louis and his 
brother. In 1470 an Assembly of Notables at Tours de- 
clared the concessions made to Charles the Bold and the 
conditions of the treaty (Peronne) null and void. Charles 
invaded France (February, 1471), and wrought great devas- 
tation, but failed to shake the authority of the king. A 
year's truce followed, and the acquisition of Guelderland in 
1472 added the fifth duchy to Burgundy. 

4. The Swiss and Charles the Bold. — Louis in turn 
formed a league against Charles which comprised France, 
Austria, the Swiss cantons, and some of the Alsatian free 
towns. In 1475 a French army invaded Burgundy and 
Charles was surrounded by a network of foes. An Eng- 
lish diversion into France by his ally, Edward IV., was 
disposed of by a hastily concluded peace. Charles, by the 
capture of Nancy (1475), completed the conquest of Lor- 
raine, and, marching against the Swiss, thought to deal a 
death-blow to his enemies. Instead he received his own. 
His splendid army was wholly defeated by the Swiss, his 
camp taken and plundered. Organizing another force, he 
was again beaten at Morat (June 22), thereby losing Lor- 
raine. Gathering a last army, he was defeated and slain 
near Nancy (January 5, 1477). Thus perished the last 
Duke of Burgundy. 

5. Triumph of Louis XI. — On the death of Charles, 
Louis, as his suzerain, seized his possessions, including 
the duchy of Burgundy, Franche-Comte, and the cities 
along the Somme. Charles in 1476 had betrothed his 
only child, Mary, to Maximilian, son of the Emperor 
Frederick, thus uniting the houses of Burgundy and Haps- 
burg. Maximilian declared war against Louis for the re- 

3. What did the Notables declare at Tours 1 What resulted ? 4. How did 
Louis retaliate 1 What expedition did Charles undertake and with what result ? 
5. How did Louis become possessed of Burgundy ? What rival claimant arose 1 



368 History of the World. [ a .d. 1482-1483 

covery of his wife's possessions. After an indecisive cam- 
paign Louis, by the treaty of Arras (1482), retained his 
acquisitions, pledging them as the dower of Margaret of 
Austria, daughter of Maximilian and Mary, to whom he 
had betrothed his son. His arms were now victorious 
everywhere. He retook Perpignan from John II. of 
Aragon. The great feudal houses fell before him. The 
Count of Armagnac was treacherously slain in 1473. 
The Duke of Alencon was thrown into prison in 1474 and 
died there. Other great nobles who had revolted met like 
fates. By treaty and inheritance Anjou, Maine, and Pro- 
vence, with the claims to the kingdom of the Two Sici- 
lies fell to the French, king. 

6. Eeforms of Louis XI. — Louis had crushed the great 
nobles, strengthened royal authority, enlarged the frontiers 
of the kingdom, and more than paved the way for the 
territorial unity of France. He increased the standing 
army and added to the defences of the fortified towns. 
He helped to raise up the people at the expense of the 
nobles. He improved the administration of justice and es- 
tablished local parliaments. He cared for the public roads 
and canals, aided commercial enterprise both by sea and 
land, and favored manufactures and mining. He set up 
printing-offices in the chief cities and established four 
new universities. He also established a system of couri- 
ers throughout the kingdom for the safe and speedy de- 
spatch of orders, which was the origin of the French pos- 
tal system. 

7. Charles VIII. (1483-1498).— Louis was succeeded by 
his son Charles, who was only thirteen at his father's death. 
During his minority his eldest sister, Anne de Beaujeu, 
ruled with wisdom and power, overcoming the revolting 

What was arranged at Arras ? Tell of Louis' conquests. 6. What reforms 
did Louis accomplish 1 What industries did he favor ? What important system 
did he estahlish ? 7. Who acted as regent during the minority of Charles VIII. ? 



a.d. 1455-1460] Modern History. 369 

nobles. Charles' exploits in search of the crown of the 
Two Sicilies belong to another chapter. 

SECTION II. England: Wars of the Roses (1455-1485). 

8. The House, of York. — Henry VI. , a weak-minded and 
feeble man, having lost all the English possessions in France 
except Calais, became greatly unpopular in England. Eich- 
ard, Duke of York, a descendant of Edward III., tried to 
seize the throne by fanning the popular discontent. The 
king being subject to temporary fits of insanity, Eichard had 
himself made protector of the kingdom. This gave great 
umbrage to the party of the house of Lancaster, who sud-. 
denly saw themselves ousted from power. 

9. Margaret of Anjou. — The queen, Margaret of Anjou, 
a woman of extraordinary energy, came to their rescue 
and that of her husband. Under her influence the king 
threw off the yoke of York. The latter summoned his 
partisans, and Henry was defeated and taken prisoner 
at St. Alban's (1455). He was led captive to London, and 
York reigned in his name. 

10. Guy of Warwick. — Margaret rallied the broken party 
and compelled York to fly. He left his cause in the hands 
of Guy, Earl of Warwick, who defeated Margaret at North- 
ampton (1460). The king was again made prisoner and 
taken to London. York returned, Parliament was sum- 
moned, and the duke, declaring Henry a usurper, claimed 
the crown as the representative of Edward III. The case 
of the claimant was brought before the House of Lords, 
who decided that Henry should reign for life and York 
succeed him, to the exclusion of the Prince of Wales. 

11. Defeat of the Lancastrians. — The queen had raised 
an army of twenty thousand men and gave battle to the 

8. Why was Henry VI. unpopular 1 What was the amhition of the Duke of 
York ? 9. Who upheld the Lancastrian cause 1 What happened at St. Alban's 1 
10. Describe what followed. Who decided on the Duke of York's claim 1 



370 History of the World, [ a .d. 1460-1488 

Yorkists at Wakefield. York was defeated and slain ; but 
Warwick remained and held the king a close prisoner. He 
was defeated by Margaret at St. Alban's and the king again 
released. But London shut its gates against the queen and 
declared in favor of Edward, eldest son of the Duke of York. 
Margaret was compelled to retire northwards. Warwick 
completely defeated her army at the bloody battle of Tow- 
ton, and Margaret, with her husband and infant son, fled 
to Flanders. 

12. Edward IV. — Edward now reigned. He soon quar- 
relled with Warwick, whom he disgraced and dismissed. 
Warwick went over to the other side. Edward's troops 
deserted him, he fled, and Henry VI. was again restored. 
London, however, as well as other strong centres, secretly 
adhered to Edward. Assisted by the Duke of Burgundy, 
he returned to England. Clarence, his brother, husband of 
Warwick's daughter, deserted the earl and went over to the 
Yorkists. This resulted in the defeat of the Lancastrians 
at Barnet, where Warwick lost his life and the cause of the 
king. 

13. Battle of Tewkesbury (1471). — Margaret landed in 
England on the same day, only to strike a last stroke at 
Tewkesbury, which was the death-blow to the royal cause. 
She was taken prisoner and sent to the Tower. Her gal- 
lant son was brutally murdered in the presence of the 
conqueror. His father soon followed him to the grave, 
and Margaret, ransomed by the King of France, died 
Avithin a few years. Edward's reign was short and given 
up to debauchery. One of the victims of his cruelty was 
his own brother, Clarence. 

14. Richard III. (1488-1485).— Edward left two sons, 
the elder, Edward V., being only thirteen years old. Their 

11. What happened at Wakefield ? At St. Alban's and at Towton 1 12. Who 
now reigned ? With whom did Edward quarrel ? Describe events up to the 
battle of Barnet. 13. Describe the battle of Tewkesbury and its results. 



a.d. 1488-1485] Modern History. 371 

uncle, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, was named protector. 
He lodged the princes in the Tower of London and re- 
solved on gaining the throne for himself. To do this he 
put the nobles whom he feared, such as Hastings and Rivers, 
to death. The princes fell next. Gloucester was declared 
king and his title confirmed by Parliament. The powerful 
Duke of Buckingham, who had entered into a conspiracy 
against him, was beheaded. Richard had not been an un- 
popular man. He was a soldier and statesman of proved 
ability. His cruelty, however, and especially the murder of 
the princes, turned the people against him. 

15. Wars of the Roses ended. — A conspiracy had been 
planned to set Henry of Eichmond, a descendant of John 
of Gaunt, on the throne. Invited over from Flanders, he 
landed in Wales at the head of a small force, which was 
rapidly increased. Richard hastened to meet him at 
Bosworth field (August 22), and would have defeated him 
had not Lord Stanley deserted at the crisis of the battle. 
Richard was slain fighting, and Henry was proclaimed 
king. This battle ended the Wars of the Roses, and the 
Plantagenets yielded to the Tudor dynasty. 

16. Henry VII. (Tudor, 1485-1509).— With Henry VII. 
came the consolidation of the royal power in England. He 
married Elizabeth, eldest daughter of Edward IV., and thus 
reconciled the rival houses of York and Lancaster. The 
strength of the nobles had been broken and their fortunes 
wasted in the long Wars of the Roses. As a consequence 
Henry found it a comparatively easy task to tighten the 
reins of power in his own' hands. 

17. Pretenders to the Throne.— Two attempts were made 
to dispossess him. A pretender, Lambert Simnel, who claim- 
ed to be the Earl of Warwick, son of the Duke of Clarence, 

14. Who became Protector and how did he use his office ? 15. What conspir- 
acy arose ? What turned the day at Bosworth ? 16. How did Henry VII. re- 
concile the factions ? What effect on England had the Wars of the Roses ? 



372 History of the Would. [a.d. 1487-1509 

drew many Yorkists to Iris standard, but after a brief suc- 
cess was defeated at Nottingham (1487) and sent to serve 
as a scullion in the king's kitchen. A second and more 
dangerous pretender appeared in the person of Perkin War- 
beck, who claimed to be Kichard, Duke of York, second 
son of Edward IV. Warbeck's cause was taken up by Bur- 
gundy, Prance, Scotland, and Ireland, while a conspiracy 
in his favor was set on foot among the English nobility, 
which, being discovered, cost Lord Stanley his life — the 
Stanley whose timely defection at Bosworth turned the day 
in Henry's favor. Warbeck maintained the struggle for 
five years, but, being finally abandoned, threw himself into 
the king's hands and was imprisoned in the Tower. Try- 
ing to escape thence, he was taken and hanged (1499). 
The young Earl of Warwick, also a prisoner, who was im- 
plicated in the attempt and in a projected insurrection, 
was tried by his peers and condemned to be beheaded. 

18. Effects of Henry VII. 's Reign. — Henry was of an 
avaricious spirit and devised pretences for extorting money 
from his subjects. Nevertheless he lived within his means 
and left a full treasury behind him. He kept England at 
peace, reformed the laws, and greatly encouraged commerce 
and national industry. During his reign Sebastian Cabot, 
the Venetian, sailed from Bristol, under Henry's patron- 
age, and discovered Newfoundland (1497). 

SECTION III. Spain : Ferdinand the Catholic (1479-1516) and Isabella 

(1474-1504). 

19. Henry of Castile. — John II. was succeeded on the 
throne of Castile by Henry, his son by his first marriage 
with Maria of Aragon. John's second wife was Isabella 
of Portugal, by whom he had a daughter, Isabella, who 

17. What pretender now appeared ? What of Perkin Warbeck 1 What befell 
Warbeck and his supporters ? 18. Describe the character of Henry VII. How 
did England fare under him ? What expedition did he encourage ? 



a.d. 1468-1479] Modern History. 373 

was only three years old at the time of her father's death. 
Henry resolved on securing the succession to his daughter, 
Juan a, and tried various schemes to dispose of his sister's 
hand and of her possible claims to the crown. The Castilian 
nobles revolted against him and offered the crown to his 
brother Alfonso (1466). On the death of Alfonso (1468) 
they transferred their allegiance to Isabella. A compromise 
was effected with Henry, by which it was agreed that Isa- 
bella should succeed him on the throne of Castile and Leon. 
The Cortes ratified the agreement. Henry broke his word 
and again tried to dispose of his sister's hand. She had 
many suitors, but favored Ferdinand, prince of Aragon, 
the son of John II. Despite Henry's resistance they were 
married at Valladolid (October 19, 1469), Ferdinand hav- 
ing previously guaranteed to Isabella all essential rights of 
sovereignty in Castile and Leon. 

20. Accession of Isabella.— Henry declared Isabella to 
have now forfeited all claims to the crown, and set up his 
daughter Juana as his lawful successor. The result was a 
civil war, in which the party of Isabella triumphed. Hen- 
ry died on December 11, 1474, and Isabella was proclaim- 
ed queen at Segovia. Juana's partisans still held out, aided 
by Affonso of Portugal, to whom she had been affianced. 
Finding herself at last deserted and the party of Isabella 
triumphant, Juana look the veil (1479), and thenceforth 
Isabella reigned without a rival. 

21. Union of the Crowns of Castile and Aragon. — Mean- 
while John II. of Aragon had died and Ferdinand suc- 
ceeded him. Thus the royal pair reigned conjointly over 
all Spain, with the exception of Granada, still held by the 
Moors, and Navarre, which had been bestowed on Ferdi- 
nand's sister Eleanor. 

19. Why did the nobles revolt against Henry of Castile ? Why was Isabella 
chosen to succeed ? Whom did Isabella marry? 20. Describe the struggle that 
ensued. 21. To what possessions did Ferdinand an4 Isabella succeed ? 



374 History of the World. [ a .d. 1481-1501 

22. Siege of Granada. — Ferdinand and Isabella resolved 
on driving the Moors from Spain. Thus occurred the 
famous expedition (1481-1492) against Granada, the 
stronghold of the Moors. Ferdinand and Isabella them- 
selves conducted the siege, aided by the great captain, 
Gonsalvo de Cordova. The Moors, under their king, Boab- 
dil, made a heroic defence, but were finally compelled to 
surrender their beautiful city (January 2, 1492). Boabdil 
retired to Africa and the Moorish power in Spain was de- 
stroyed for ever. The Moors who chose to follow their 
king were allowed to do so. Those who remained were 
compelled to swear fealty. Multitudes chose to remain ; 
but a revolt having broken out among them in 1501, which 
was quelled by Gonsalvo, Ferdinand ordered them either 
to quit Spain or become Christians. After this the major- 
ity of them gradually retired to Africa. For this great 
exploit Ferdinand and Isabella received from the Holy See 
the joint title of "the Catholic." 

23. Policy of Ferdinand. — The sovereigns also set them- 
selves to consolidate the kingdom and render it a unit by 
putting an end to its petty divisions. Ferdinand struck at 
the power of the nobles by obtaining in his own person the 
grand-mastership of the several orders of knighthood and 
strengthening the hermandad, or joint league of cities for 
the suppression of brigandage and aggression on the part 
of the nobles. He also set the Inquisition in active opera- 
tion, and used it as a terror not only against the converted 
Moors and Jews (whose conversion was for the most part 
only nominal), but also against the turbulent among his 
Christian subjects. As a matter of fact it was soon con- 
verted into a state terrorism. Queen Isabella approved of 
it with great reluctance. Two Dominicans were appointed 

22. Who were engaged in the siege of Granada ? What resulted from the fall 
of Granada ? What hecame of the Moors ? 23. How was union established in 
Spain ? Why was the Inquisition established ? 



a.d. 1480-1504] Modern History. 375 

Grand Inquisitors by royal edict (1480), and a court was set 
up at Seville. The edict first came into operation January 
2, 1481. In the following year Pope Sixtus IV. urged 
mildness and moderation on the part of the inquisitors. 
He soon after bestowed on the Archbishop of Seville pow- 
er of appeal for all Spain, and reversal, where he saw fit, 
of the judgments of the Inquisition. 

24. The Inquisition in Spain. — It is beyond question that 
the Inquisition was guilty of great cruelties, and what 
was in reality a purely political instrument has stained the 
name of religion with blood by using it as a cloak for its 
misdeeds. It must not be forgotten, however, on the purely 
political side, that it was a critical time in Spanish history ; 
that the monarch had turbulent nobles and newly-attached 
principalities to contend against, as well as the conquered 
Moors, abetted by the secret enmity of the Jews to the 
Christian faith. The Jews were at this time a very nume- 
rous body and powerful by their wealth. Conspiracy and 
disorder were put down with a severe hand, and the Inqui- 
sition was found to be the readiest and most effective instru- 
ment to that end. An edict for the expulsion of the Jews 
had been published prior to that against the Moors (March 
31, 1492), and large numbers of them left the kingdom. 

25. Deaths of Ferdinand and Isabella. — Isabella died in 
1504, honored to the last for her great gifts and virtues. 
She it was who was chiefly instrumental in aiding Colum- 
bus to discover the New World. Her daughter Catherine 
was married to Arthur, eldest son of Henry VII. of Eng- 
land, and, on that prince's death, within a year to his bro- 
ther Henry. Isabella was married to Emanuel of Portugal, 
and Juana to the Archduke Philip, son of the Emperor 
Maximilian. On Isabella's death Philip, in right of his 

What action did Sixtus IV. take regarding the Inquisition 1 24. Against what 
was the Inquisition especially aimed 1 Why were the Jews severely treated ? 
25. What great event marks Isabella's reign 1 Whom did her daughter marry ? 



376 History of the World. [a.d. 1504-1517 

wife, claimed the regency of Castile (bequeathed to Juana), 
which Isabella had entrusted to Ferdinand. Ximenes, 
Archbishop of Toledo, and afterwards cardinal, as wise and 
energetic a statesman as he was a holy man, was made 
arbiter between the rival claimants. Philip died in 1506, 
and Juana lost her reason, leaving the claim to their young 
son Charles, in whose minority Ferdinand assumed the re- 
gency, which was vigorously carried on by Ximenes during 
the king's absence in Italy. 

26. Cardinal Ximenes. — In 1509 Cardinal Ximenes organ- 
ized an expedition against Oran, a nest of pirates on the Af- 
rican shore. He took the place with all its treasures, and 
thus added a new possession to Spain. On the death of Fer- 
dinand (January 23, 1516) the regency of the kingdom 
was entrusted to the cardinal until the arrival of Prince 
Charles, Ferdinand's grandson. The cardinal organized a 
powerful militia by enrolling the citizens into corps, 
which were at once a protection to the kingdom and an 
offset to the power of the nobles. He ruled the kingdom 
well for Charles and held it against all opposition. He 
added to his conquests on the Barbary coasts, strove to 
protect the natives in the new American colonies, guard- 
ed well the finances, and instituted many reforms in the 
state, as well as among the clergy and religions orders. 
He received cool thanks from the young monarch on the 
hitter's arrival (September 17, 1517), and died the fol- 
lowing month (November 8). He was a munificent pa- 
tron of letters, founded the great university of Alcala 
de Henares, and defrayed the cost of preparing and hav- 
ing published the famous polyglot Bible, known as the 
Complutensian polyglot. 

Who was Ximenes and what part did he play in affairs? How did Charles 
come to the throne ? 26. Tell of the Oran expedition. How did Ximenes 
govern ? How was he treated by Charles 1 _With what is his name connected ? 



a.d. 1492] Modern History. 377 

SECTION IV. Maritime Discoveries and Conquests of the Spaniards. 

27. Christopher Columbus. — While Ferdinand and Isa- 
bella were still engaged in the conquest of Granada, 
Christopher Columbus, an experienced and enterprising 
Genoese mariner, had been troubling the various courts 
with a scheme of discovery from which they shrank. He 
maintained that by sailing over the ocean westward he 
would come to India, thus opening up a new route. Af- 
ter repeated failures and long disappointment his cause 
was at last taken up by Juan Perez, prior of the convent 
of La Eabida at Palos. Palos was fantkl for the enter- 
prise of its mariners, and Perez had formerly been confes- 
sor to Queen Isabella. By his intercession and the repre- 
sentations of Columbus tbe queen was so wrought upon 
as to furnish two small vessels for the expedition, which 
was as much a religious as a maritime enterprise. 

28. Discovery of America. — On August 3, 1492, Colum- 
bus, in command of three vessels containing one hundred 
and twenty men, set sail from Palos on his discovery of a 
new world. Overcoming all things — the elements, the dread 
of the unknown as the men advanced further and further 
into the mysterious deep, tbe murmurs and insubordina- 
tion of his crew — the bold leader kept steadily on his course, 
until in the early morning of October 12, 1492, land was 
sighted. Disembarking at sunrise, Columbus took posses- 
sion of the land, an island, in the name of the Spanish 
sovereigns, and, planting a cross, called the place San Sal- 
vador. The natives were friendly to the strangers, whom 
they looked upon as gods. 

29. Other Voyages and Discoveries of Columbus. — Colum- 
bus, after making other discoveries, among them Hayti 
and Cuba, returned to Spain bearing some of the natives 

27. Who was Columbus ? What expedition did lie propose ? Who took up 
his cause ? 28. What force had Columbus ? Describe his voyage and discoveiy. 
29. What other discoveries did Columbus make ? 



378 History of the World. [ a .d. 1506-1518 

with him. He was received in great triumph by Ferdi- 
nand and Isabella in their court at Barcelona. He made 
three other voyages, each time with new discoveries. But 
envy of his fame raised up enemies against him. Isabella 
being dead, he was treated with gross insult and injury, 
and died in poverty, deserted by all. His children reaped 
the rewards which were most unjustly denied the man 
who, in the words of the inscription ordered by Ferdi- 
nand to be graven on his tomb, " had given a new world 
to Castile and Leon" (1506). 

30. Hernando Cortez in Mexico. — The great discovery of 
Columbus gave a new bent and direction to maritime en- 
terprise, and his example was soon followed by a multi- 
tude of others. In 1504 Hernando Cortez, a Spanish youth 
from Estremadura, sailed for Santo Domingo, where he re- 
ceived an appointment from the governor. He distinguish- 
ed himself greatly and rose rapidly. Finally he was ap- 
pointed to take charge of a new expedition of discovery, 
and set out at the head of a fleet of ten vessels containing 
five hundred and fifty Spaniards, two hundred or three 
hundred Indians, a few negroes, horses, and brass can- 
non (November 18, 1518). On March 4 he landed on 
the shores of a new country, portion of a vast empire 
which he found was ruled by a chief called Montezuma. 
The natives were brave and gave battle to the strangers, but 
were terrified at sight of the horses, hitherto unknown 
on their soil, and the flash and roar and destruction 
wrought by the cannon. They were defeated in every en- 
counter, and Cortez resolved on conquering the land. He 
founded a fort called Vera Cruz, and burnt his ships to 
make retreat impossible. 

31. Cortez and Montezuma. — On August 16, leaving a 

How was Columbus rewarded for his discoveries 1 30. How did Columbus' 
discoveries act on others ? Tell of the expedition of Hernando Cortez. How 
was Cortez met by the natives 1 What action did Cortez take ? 



a.d. 1519-1531] Modern History. 379 

small garrison at Vera Cruz, lie set out for the capital of 
Mexico, subduing or winning over the tribes 011 his march. 
He arrived before Mexico November 8, 1519, with six 
thousand native auxiliaries added to his original force. 
Montezuma received him with great pomp and awarded 
him and his followers quarters in the city, reported to 
contain a hundred thousand inhabitants. A pretext was 
found by the bold adventurer to pick a quarrel with 
Montezuma and imprison him in his own palace. He ex- 
acted the monarch's allegiance and that of his nobles and 
vassals to the King of Spain, with a tribute of one hun- 
dred thousand ducats. 

32. Capture of the City of Mexico. — Cortez now learned 
that Narvaez had been sent to follow and supersede him. 
Leaving two hundred men as a garrison in Mexico, he has- 
tened to meet ISTarvaez, took him prisoner, captured his 
forces, and reduced them to his own service. Returning 
to Mexico, he found that the natives had revolted. In the 
melee Montezuma received his death-wound. The Span- 
iards were driven out and pursued for six days. On July 
7, 1520, a battle was fought on the plain of Otumba, 
which resulted in a great victory for Cortez. Gathering 
an auxiliary army, he marched against the capital and took 
it after a desperate defence (August 13, 1521). He was 
made governor and captain-general of the newly conquered 
country, with the enjoyment of an immense revenue. He 
completed his conquests, using such cruelty in the process 
that the natives revolted again and again, only to be put 
down each time with new cruelty. 

33. Fall of Cortez. — Jealousy arose against Cortez, as 
against the greater and more magnanimous Columbus. 
His property was seized and his servants imprisoned. Re- 

31. Describe Cortez' march, to Mexico and his reception there. How did 
Cortez act ? 32. Tell of Cortez and Narvaez. What happened in Mexico ? How- 
did the city fall 1 What followed its fall 1 33. How was Cortez rewarded ? , i( j 



380 History of the World, [a.d. 1527-1531 

turning to Spain, lie was received with great distinction 
by Charles V. and sent back with new honors bat more 
restricted powers. In 1536 he visited California and sur- 
veyed part of the Gulf of Mexico. Being under con- 
stant espionage, he again returned to Spain, where he 
was coldly received by the king and finally died in ut- 
ter neglect and solitude (December 2, 1547). 

34. Francisco Pizarro in Peru. — Another Estremaduran, 
named Francisco Pizarro, followed the stream of conquest 
to the New World. He joined various expeditions, in 
which he distinguished himself by his boldness and skill. 
Finally he united with Diego de Almagro, a soldier 
of fortune, in an exploring expedition southward from 
Panama (November, 1524). The expedition was unsuc- 
cessful, save for rumors of a rich land lying still further 
south. A second expedition could only muster one hun- 
dred and sixty followers. The acquisition of a little gold 
brought new followers, but too few to pursue conquest. 
Finally Pizarro went to Spain, where he was imprisoned 
for debt, but afterwards set free and favorably received by 
Charles V., and on July 26, 1529, was granted a royal 
commission as governor and captain-general of all the 
lands he might conquer in Peru. He set sail in 1530, and 
a year later sailed from Panama with three vessels, one 
hundred and eighty men, and twenty-seven horses. 

35. Pizarro and the Incas. — Landing at St. Matthew's 
Bay, he found a vast empire governed by a family called 
the incas, two chiefs of whom at this time disputed the 
supremacy. Pizarro, joining his forces to those of Ata- 
huallpa, who had just gained a great victory over his bro- 
ther, Huascar, was well received by the conqueror. The 
Spaniard secured the person of his new friend, whom he 

Tell of Cortez' other discoveries and his end. 34. What led Pizarro to Peru ? 
What obstacles did he encounter and how did he overcome them ? 35. What 
discovery did Pizarro make 1 How did he act ? 



a.d. 1533-1548] Modern History. 381 

made prisoner, and the Peruvians fled. Atahuallpa, as his 
ransom, offered to fill the room in which he was confined 
with gold. He filled it, and Pizarro, securing the booty, 
treacherously put his captive to death (August 29, 1533). 
Marching on Cuzco, the capital, he entered and proclaim- 
ed Manco Capac, a half-brother of Atahuallpa, inca, Hu- 
ascar having already been slain by his brother's order. 
Pizarro built Ciudad de los Reyes (City of the Kings) as a 
new capital on the coast (January 6, 1535), and resided 
there. Manco Capac escaped from Cuzco and raised a 
revolt. Cuzco was besieged and fired, and the Spaniards 
massacred in all directions. To add to their disasters a 
rupture between Almagro and Pizarro led to a war, in 
which Almagro was defeated and afterwards put to death 
(1538). 

36. Death of Pizarro. — The country was now the prey 
of both Spaniards and natives. Reports of Pizarro's cru- 
elty having reached Spain, Vaca de Castro was sent out 
(1540) to examine into the state of affairs. Before he 
reached the ground Pizarro fell the victim of an attack by 
Almagro's son, Diego (June 26, 1541), who proclaimed 
himself governor and hastened to meet Castro. In a bat- 
tle near Jauja (September 16, 1542) Almagro was defeat- 
ed, taken, and put to death. Castro applied himself vig- 
orously to restore order, but had soon to yield to Blasco 
Nunez Vela, who had been sent out as viceroy. His or- 
ders were to lighten the lot of the Indians and establish 
new laws in their favor. The reform brought on a civil 
war. Pizarro's brother, G-onzalo, raised a revolt and over- 
came Vela. Pedro de la G-asca was then sent to restore 
order. Conzalo was taken and put to death (1548). With- 
in two years the new viceroy had established order and 

Describe Pizarro's conquest and methods. What capital did he found ? Tell 
of Manco Capac. 36. What was the condition of Peru ? How did Pizarro die ? 
Describe the events that followed his death. 



382 History of the World. [a.d. 1385-1495 

government, and made the Spanish authority paramount 
over all Peru. 

SECTION V. Portugal: Maritime Discoveries and Conquests. 

37. Voyages of Prince Henry. — The naval expeditions 
and voyages of discovery made by Prince Henry of Portu- 
gal, son of John the Great (1385-1433)-, extended over 
half a century. Prince Henry was led to believe that the 
African coast did not end, as was then supposed, at Cape 
Nun, and in attempting to explore beyond that point 
Madeira was discovered and occupied (1419). Subsequent 
expeditions only reached as far as Cape Bojador, three 
hundred miles further south of Cape JSTun. Failing to 
double that point, it was considered to be the end of the 
habitable world. 

88. Discovery of the Azores and Sierra Leone. — In 1433, 
however, Gil Eannez, who was sent out by the prince, suc- 
ceeded in passing Cape Bojador. The Azores had been 
discovered and occupied a short time before. In 1441 
Pope Eugenius IV., at Henry's request, granted to the 
crown of Portugal all the territory it could conquer 
from Cape Bojador to the Indies. This gave a new im- 
petus to discovery. In 1445 the prince sent a vessel out 
under Diniz Dyaz, or Fernandez, which reached Cape Yerd. 
The voyages brought gold and slaves into Portugal, and 
the spirit of the people was roused to their importance. 
A succession of larger expeditions was then sent out. 
One of these, just before Prince Henry's death (November 
13, 1460), reached Sierra Leone. 

39. Emanuel I. (1495-1521) ; Vasco da Gama.— The spirit 
of Portuguese enterprise initiated by John I. was kept up 
by his successor, John II. (1481-1495), but received an 

37. Describe the expeditions of Prince Henry of Portugal and their result. 
38. By whom was Cape Bojador passed 'I Tell of other discoveries. What effect 
had the discoveries on Portugal 1 39. Did the kings encourage these expeditions ? 



a.d. 1495-1521] Modern History. 383 

altogether new impetus when Emanuel I., who married 
successively Isabella of Castile and her sister, Donna Maria, 
ascended the throne (1495-1521). His reign was the cul- 
minating point of Portugal's greatness and glory. He 
pursued the sea-path to India. In 1497 he fitted out a 
fleet under command of Vasco da Gama, a gentleman of 
his household and an experienced seaman, They succeed- 
ed in doubling the Cape of Storms, discovered by Diaz, 
which, with good omen, King Emanuel had named before- 
hand the Cape of Good Hope. Following the coast, they 
touched at various points, discovered Mozambique, and 
came upon some rich and civilized Mohammedan settle- 
ments. Going on from point to point, making new dis- 
coveries on their way and entering into relations with the 
inhabitants, they finally reached Calicut, in Hindostan (May 
20, 1498). Thus a new route to the East was opened. 
Da Gama then sailed homewards, and arrived in the Tagns 
(August 29, 1499) after a voyage of twenty-six months. 
He was received with all honor, and the king gave him 
the title of "Lord of the. Conquest of Ethiopia, Arabia, 
Persia, and India." 

40. Discovery of Brazil. — Another expedition, under Cab- 
ral, was at once fitted out to establish trading-posts along 
the African coast. The wayward winds carried the fleet 
to Brazil, leading to the discovery of that rich country and 
its acquisition to the Portuguese crown. From Brazil 
Cabral struck out for India, which he reached, and estab- 
lished a factory at Calicut. When the fleet left the peo- 
ple rose and massacred the Portuguese. Another fleet of 
twenty vessels was sent out under Da Gama (1502). He 
avenged his slaughtered countrymen, established new rela- 
tions with the people, and sailed to Cochin, whose king- 
Under whom did Portuguese greatness culminate ? Tell of Yasco da Gama 
and his expeditions. What new route was opened up by Da Gama ? 40. How 
came Brazil to be discovered ? Trace the movements of Cabral and Da Gama. 



384: History of the World. [a.d. 1503-1515 

became his ally. On his return he was loaded with new 
honors and retired for twenty-one years. The Portuguese 
dominion in the East Laving largely developed, John III. 
appointed Da Gama viceroy of the Indies (1524). Pro- 
ceeding thither, he died at Cochin December 25, 1524. 

41. Albuquerque. — Da Gama's conquests and discoveries 
were expanded by Affonso of Albuquerque, who made his 
first voyage to India in 1503. He conducted a number of 
expeditions, and was sent in 1507 to supersede Almeida, 
the governor of India. He made many conquests, took 
Goa and Malacca, where he captured an enormous booty 
and established the Portuguese power. His constant suc- 
cess struck terror into the natives, who finally settled 
peaceably down under their conquerors. Passing on from 
conquest to conquest, and repulsing all rivals sent to su- 
persede him, he was at length recalled (1515), but died 
on the way and was buried at Goa. The Portuguese re- 
mained masters of the Indian Ocean and the ruling power 
on the east coast of Africa and south coast of Asia for 
nearly a century. 

SECTION VI. Germany: Frederick III. (1440-1493) and Maximilian I. 

(1493-1519). 

42. Reign of Frederick III. — Frederick III., the Pacific, 
was elected to succeed Albert II. He had many virtues, 
but was of too mild a character for the times and scenes 
in which he lived. His long reign was a series of wars 
against the Turks, the Hungarians, the Bohemians and 
Burgundians, and was troubled by revolts in the empire 
and in Italy. Matthias Corvinus, of Hungary, took from 
him Vienna and all Lower Austria (1485). On the death 
of Matthias (1490) he recovered these possessions. This 

What office was conferred on Da Gama ? 41. Tell of Albuquerque and his 
expeditions. What possessions did the Portuguese hold in Africa and Asia? 42. 
Describe the reign of Frederick III. What of Matthias Corvinus and Frederick 1 



a.d. 1486-1503] Modern History. 385 

success was added to by his son Maximilian, whom he had 
made King of Rome (I486), and to whom later on (1490) 
he confided the chief power, he himself retiring to his 
favorite studies. He was the last king of Germany to be 
crowned Emperor of Rome and King of the Lombards. 
On the death of Ladislas, son of Albert II., he inherited 
Lower Austria, and on the death of his own brother,. Al- 
bert, Upper Austria. He united the two provinces and 
converted them into an archduchy. 

43. Eeign of Maximilian. — But the troubles of Ferdi- 
nand's reign did not end with Ferdinand's death. His son 
and successor, Maximilian, was drawn into a variety of en- 
tanglements abroad, while disturbed at home by actual or 
threatened upheavals. The Diet of Worms published a de- 
cree of eternal peace (1495), but it was more in name than 
in fact. A new Imperial Chamber was organized to main- 
tain the peace. The empire was divided into ten circles : 
the Austrian, Bavarian, Swabian, Franconian, Upper Rhen- 
ish, Lower Rhenish, Westphalian, Upper Saxon, Lower 
Saxon, and Burgundian. A contest between the several 
states was henceforth to be treated as an act of rebellion 
against the whole empire. Maximilian, unfortunate as an 
emperor, meddling in many things, deceived at times by 
allies, deserted at others by his own troops, often in straits 
and sometimes penniless, was fortunate enough in his family 
alliances. Philip and Margaret, his children by Mary of 
Burgundy, married Juana and Juan, the children of Ferdi- 
nand and Isabella. Philip's sudden death in 1506 left the 
inheritance of Castile to his son Charles, who also succeed- 
ed Maximilian as Emperor of Germany. Charles' younger 
brother, Ferdinand, received Austria, and later, by marriage 
connections, Bohemia and Hungary. 

To whom did Frederick cede the power? What did he inherit? 43. How 
was Maximilian's reign troubled? How did he divide the empire? What was 
done at the Diet of Worms ? What alliances did Maximilian make ? 



386 History of the World. [a.d. 1494-1495 



CHAPTEE III. 

THE ITALIAN WARS OF THE FIFTEENTH AND SIX- 
TEENTH CENTURIES. 

The Italian wars, begun at the close of the fifteenth century, ended in the 
middle of the sixteenth. The first period covers the expedition of Charles 
VIII., the wars of Louis XII., and the victory of Francis I. at Melegnano. The 
second period is given up to the rivalries of Francis I. and Charles V., Henry 
II. and Philip II. 

SECTION I. Charles VIII. in Italy (1494-1495). 

1. Conquest of Naples. — Charles, a boy of thirteen, suc- 
ceeded to the noble inheritance of Louis XL During his 
minority the kingdom was ably ruled under the regency of 
his eldest sister, Anne de Beaujeu. Charles, fired by the 
stories of Charlemagne, resolved on foreign conquest, and 
on attaining his majority took up the claim, that had 
fallen to Louis, of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. He 
entered Italy at the head of a powerful army and took 
Naples (1494-1495). Leaving a strong force behind him, 
he marched back at the head of nine thousand picked men 
and defeated on the way, at Fornovo, an army of forty 
thousand Italians (July 6, 1495). 

2. The Spaniards in Naples. — Joanna II., Queen of Na- 
ples, invoked the aid of Alfonso, Prince of Aragon and son 
of Ferdinand I., against Louis III., Duke of Anjou, who 
laid claim to the throne. As a reward she offered him the 
duchy of Calabria and heirship to Naples. Alfonso com- 
pelled Louis to raise the siege of Naples and make peace 
on terms advantageous to the queen. The fickle Joanna 
veered from one side to the other, and Alfonso, sailing for 

What is comprised in the Italian wars ? 1. What conquests did Charles VIII. 
undertake? How did he succeed ? 2. Who was the Queen of Naples and what 
alliance did she make ? Did she remain steadfast 1 



a.d. 1423-1499] Modern History. 387 

Spain, left his Naples claim and fortunes in care of his 
brother, Don Pedro (1423). The Spaniards had to face a 
formidable combination under the queen, the pope, the 
Genoese, and the Dukes of Anjou and Milan. The queen, 
dying in 1435, left her crown to Eene of Anjou, brother 
and successor of Louis III. Alfonso, returning to make 
good his claim, was defeated and taken prisoner by the 
Genoese and the Duke of Milan. Winning over the latter, 
Alfonso was again enabled to press his claims, and in 1442 
succeeded in making himself master of Naples. He was 
soon after recognized as king by the states of the realm 
and by Pope Eugenins IV. Thenceforth he resided in Na- 
ples, save for his brief dispossession by Charles VIII., heir 
to the last Duke of Anjou. Alfonso left Naples to his son 
Ferdinand, and Aragon, Sardinia, and Sicily to his brother 
John. 

3. Coalition against the French. — The French rule was 
so oppressive that the states soon revolted and a league was 
formed between Venice, Pope Alexander VI., Alfonso, the 
Emperor Maximilian, and tbe Duke of Milan. They called 
over Gonsalvo de Cordova, who had just completed the 
conquest of Granada. Defeated at first, he speedily suc- 
ceeded in driving the French from the country (149C). 
Charles was preparing for another expedition of recon- 
quest when he died (1498). 

4. The French driven from Naples. — Charles, dying 
without issue, was succeeded on the throne of France by 
Louis, son of Charles, Duke of Orleans and great-grandson 
of Charles V. Louis laid claim to the duchy of Milan in 
right of his grandmother, Valentina Visconti. On becom- 
ing king he prepared to enforce his claims. He soon con- 
quered the duchy (1499), and made an alliance with Fer- 

How fared the Spaniards in Naples ? What befell Alfonso ? 3. How fared the 
French in Naples ? Who drove them out ? 4. Who succeeded Charles ? What 
claim did Louis advance ? 



388 History of the World. [ a .d. 1499-1514 

dinand of Aragon for joint rule with him in Naples. The 
allies quarrelled, and Gonsalvo of Cordova was again call- 
ed in. With very inferior forces the great captain beat 
the French in a succession of engagements at Seminara, 
Cerignola, and finally in a battle on the G-arigliano near 
Gaeta (1503), which ended the French pretensions to Na- 
ples. They were driven out of southern Italy. 

5. The League of Cambrai and the Holy League. — Louis 
still held his hold on the north. Genoa was severely pun- 
ished for asserting its freedom (1507). He next resolved 
on crushing the powerful republic of Venice, and to this 
end formed the League of Cambrai with Pope Julius II., 
the Emperor Maximilian, and Ferdinand of Aragon. The 
Venetians were defeated at Agnadello (1509), and were on 
the point of collapse when the pope joined them and formed, 
with Maximilian, Henry VIII. of England, and Ferdinand, 
the "Holy League" against the French. The French and 
Milanese, under the young and gallant Gaston de Foix, were 
successful till the death of the latter at Ravenna (1512). 
The victory of the allies at Novara (1513) was the death- 
blow to the French cause in Italy. 

6. The allies next invaded. France. The English gained 
a victory at Guinegate (the Battle of the Spurs). Louis, 
threatened by the Swiss and by Maximilian, came to terms 
(1514). He died soon after. 

SECTION II. Francis I. (1513-1547). 

7. Battle of Melegnano. — Louis, dying without male is- 
sue, was succeeded by Francis, Count of Angouleme, hus- 
band of Claude, the daughter of Louis XII. Francis pur- 
sued Louis' scheme of Italian conquest and entered Italy 
at the head of forty thousand men. The Swiss opposed his 

How did the French claims on Naples end ? 5. What was the League of Cam- 
brai? What was the Holy League? Where were the French finally beaten? 
6. What was the result of Louis' expeditious % 7. Who succeeded Louis ? 



a.d. 1515-1516] Modern History. 389 

passage at Melegnano, but after a most stubborn conflict 
were defeated, and Milan opened its gates to Francis 
(1515). The gallant king wisely granted an honorable 
peace to such formidable foes as the Swiss, and thus 
secured their alliance. He also made a concordat with 
Pope Leo X. (1516), agreeing to suppress the "Pragmatic 
Sanction" of Bourges, by virtue of which the French 
monarchs had claimed certain things in matters of eccle- 
siastical discipline and appointment irreconcilable with the 
freedom of the Church in their dominions. 

What led Francis into Italy 1 Describe the battle of Melegnano. What terms 
did Francis make with the Swiss ? What agreement did Francis make with the 
pope? 



SECOND EPOCH. 

FROM LUTHER TO THE ACCESSION OF LOUIS XIV. (1517-1643). 

This epoch comprises the outbreak of the Protestant Reformation, the 
rivalry of the houses of France and Austria, and the religious wars in Europe. 



CHAPTEE I. 



The religious movement known as the Protestant Reformation was started 
in Germany by Martin Luther, and was speedily taken up by the Scandina- 
vian nations. Zwinglius preached it in Switzerland; Calvin consolidated it 
there and took it into Prance. His disciples carried it to Scotland, and the 
schism of Henry Till, prepared England for it. True and needed reform in 
the Church was effected by the Council of Trent. 

SECTION I. Germany: Luther (1483-1646). 

1. After the victory of Melegnano there followed a lull 
rather than a peace in Europe. The pope took advan- 
tage of it to urge all Christian princes to unite against 
the Turks. He also announced a plenary indulgence to all 
who should contribute towards defraying the expenses of 
the crusade and completing the magnificent basilica of St. 
Peter's at Eome (1517). 

2. Tetzel and Luther. — John Tetzel, an eloquent and 
learned Dominican, was appointed to publish and preach 
the indulgences in Saxony. He preached with much suc- 
cess until opposed by Martin Luther, an Augustinian friar 
and professor at the University of Wittenberg. Luther 

What does the second epoch ol modem histoiy embrace ? Over what area 
did the Protestant Reformation spread ? 1. What followed the battle of Meleg- 
nano ? 2, Who was Tetzel ? Who was Luther 1 



a.d. 1517-1521] Modern History. 391 

was a man of great ability and force of character. He 
denounced the manner in which Tetzel carried out his 
commission, and on October 31, 1517, boldly posted up 
on the door of the Schlosskirche his protest in the shape 
of ninety-five theses against the sale and practice of in- 
dulgences, enclosing a copy at the same time to the Arch- 
bishop of Magdeburg and submitting everything to the 
pope. 

3. Luther condemned by the Pope. — A long controversy 
followed the publication of the theses. The pope at first 
seemed to consider the quarrel as only one between rival 
monks. The time, however, was ripe for change. There 
were grave scandals in the Church as well as in the state ; 
Europe had been distracted by wars and civil contentions, 
and in Germany the Hussite heresy was not yet altogether 
forgotten. Luther's theses kindled a flame in all Ger- 
many. On November 9, 1518, Pope Leo published a bull 
explaining the nature of indulgences and defining the 
right of the Holy See to grant them. Luther, growing 
bolder with his success, appealed from the bull to a gene- 
ral council. A reconciliation was effected, but broken 
again by fresh discussions, and finally the pope formally 
condemned Luther's writings as heretical (June 15, 1520). 

4. The Diet of Worms (1521). — Luther responded by 
burning the bull at Wittenberg (December 10). He now 
appealed to the spirit of nationality against the pope, 
launched some forcible pamphlets against Rome, and is- 
sued an adroit address to the German nobles, on whose 
support he relied to maintain him in the struggle on 
which he had fairly entered. Summoned by Charles V. 
to the diet at Worms, he went there and defended his 
doctrines, falling back for his authority on the Scriptures, 

What action did Luther take against Tetzel ? 3. What was the condition of 
Europe at this time ? How did the Pope act % How did Luther act ? 4. What 
new course did Luther take 1 What did he maintain at the Diet of Worms ? 



392 History of the World. [a.d. 1521-1529 

affirming that both pope and councils had often erred (April 
18, 1521). He set up the Bible, his own conscience, 
and private judgment against tradition, the pope, and the 
teachings of the councils. The diet placed him under 
the ban of the empire, and he was declared an outlaw 
both in Church and state. 

5. Spread of Heresy in Germany. — Luther found a pro- 
tector in Frederick, Elector of Saxony. Keturning to 
Wittenberg (1522) because of social outbreaks among his 
followers, /he preached moderation and restored a kind of 
order. But his doctrines, equally subversive to state and 
Church, had spread abroad. [ Miinzer, one of his followers, 
preached communism among the peasants, who rose, com- 
mitted great excesses, and were put down with terrible cru- 
elty (1525). The Anabaptists proclaimed both commun- 
ism and free love. They seized upon Miinster (1533), set 
John Boccold, a tailor's apprentice, at their head, and 
crowned him " King of Zion." The city was soon given 
up by both "king" and people to unbridled licentiousness, 
but was taken (June 24, 1535) and the leaders tortured 
and put to death. 

6. The Diet of Spires (1529).— In 1525 Luther married 
Catharina von Bora, au ex-nun, "to please his father," as 
lie expressed it, "to tease the pope, and to vex the devil." 
To put an end to anarchy the Diet of Spires (1529) allow- 
ed people to follow or not the new doctrines at their plea- 
sure until the convocation of a council. The Lutherans, 
protesting against this, received the name of Protestants. 
They never agreed wholly among themselves on points of 
doctrine, the right of absolute private judgment and inter- 
pretation of Scripture being necessarily fatal to such agree- 
ment. In return for the protection of the princes Luther 

What was the decision of the Diet of Worms ? 5. Describe the result of 
Luther's teachings. Who were the Anabaptists 1 What did they teach and 
with what result? 6. What was decided at Spires ? 



a.d. 1530-1548] Modern History. 393 

had to concede to their demands, as when, in 1539, he gave 
his consent to the bigamy of Philip of Hesse. 

7. The Diet of Augsburg (1530). — The princes and states 
protesting against the decision of the Diet of Spires were 
the Elector of Saxony, the Margrave of Brandenburg- 
Anspach, the Duke of Brunswick-Liineburg, the Land- 
grave of Hesse, and fourteen imperial cities. Thenceforth 
the breach between Protestants and Catholics widened in- 
stead of narrowing, and led to long and bloody conflicts. 
Charles V. of Spain, who had been elected to succeed the 
Emperor Maximilian (1519), left the direction of affairs in 
Germany to his brother Eerdinand, who used his power 
with skill and discretion, but could not close the widen- 
ing rent. Finally Charles himself summoned a diet at 
Augsburg (1530) by way of healing dissensions. The at- 
tempt failed. 

8. The Smalcald League. — The Protestants drew up their 
confession of faith, which Charles refused to accept in his 
empire. The Protestant princes then refused to aid him 
against the Turks, and formed a confederation of their own 
at Smalcald (1531), in which they had the secret aid of 
England and Erance, both of these powers being jealous 
of Charles. Charles having granted the Protestant princes 
their demands pending the decisions of a council, they af- 
terwards joined him against the Turks. Later on, when 
peace was restored in his Spanish dominions, he again 
turned to Germany, and, in alliance with the pope, his 
brother Eerdinand, and Duke Maurice of Saxony, entered 
on a campaign against the princes of the Smalcald League. 
He defeated them at Miihlberg (April 24, 1547), and be- 
stowed Saxony on Maurice. In a second diet at Augs- 
burg (1548) he issued the Interim, which was a second 

7. Who declared against the decision at Spires 1 How did Protestants and 
Catholics stand ? Who governed in Germany ? 8. What was done at Smalcald ? 
What action did Charles T. take 1 What was the Interim ? 



394 History of the World. [a.d. 1513-1531 

concession to the Protestants pending the decision of the 
council then assembled at Trent. Maurice, deserting the 
emperor and leaguing with the King of France, defeated 
Charles, and at the treaty of Passau (August 2, 1552) 
exacted all the Protestant demands. 

SECTION II. Scandinavian Nations. 

9. Christian II. ; Gustavus Vasa. — Christian II. succeeded 
his father, John, on the reunited thrones of Denmark, 
Norway, and Sweden (1513). His weakness and cruelty led 
to constant revolts and trouble. He signalized his triumph 
over his enemies by a most barbarous massacre. Among 
the nobles who fell was Eric Johanssen, a Swedish senator 
and father of Gustavus, belonging to the house of Yasa. 
Gustavus, who had been held by Christian as a hostage, 
made his escape. Hastening to Sweden, he roused the pea- 
sants there and soon found himself at the head of twenty 
thousand men. 

10. Christian deposed. — Christian threatened to slay the 
mother and sisters of Gustavus, unless he submitted. 
Gustavus refused, and the cruel threat was executed. Fi- 
nally all the people rose and drove Christian from his king- 
dom (April, 1523), thus dissolving once for all the Calmar 
Union. Frederick of Holstein was called to the throne of 
Denmark. An attempt by Christian to regain his lost 
power failed in 1531. He was taken prisoner and kept 
in confinement till his death. 

11. Protestantism established in Sweden. — Meanwhile 
Gustavus, who had been offered the crown of Sweden by 
the nobles, refused it for that of administrator. On the de- 
position of Christian, Gustavus accepted the title of king 
and entered Stockholm in triumph (June, 1523). He had 

What of Maurice of Saxony ? 9. Describe the reign of Christian IT. How did 
he signalize his triumph ? Who was Gustavus Tasa ? 10. How was the Calmar 
Union dissolved ? What befell Christian ? 



a.d. 1527-1536] Modern History. 395 

been a secret partisan of Luther, whom he met at Liibeck. 
He began his reign by attacks on the Catholic clergy. This 
provoked insurrection, which he quelled. Convoking the 
states at Westeras (1527), he obtained the exclusion of the 
bishops from the senate and their subjection to the civil 
power. From this to laying hands on the Church proper- 
ties was a short step. Custavus was now crowned at Up- 
sal (January 12, 1528) by Lars Petri, a Lutheran bishop. 
In the same year Lutherauism was declared to be the re- 
ligion of the state in a national council held at Orebro. 
Frederick, who had succeeded Christian on the throne of 
Denmark, was also a partisan of Lutheranism, which he 
imposed upon his people at the Diet of Copenhagen 
(1536). 

SECTION III. Switzerland and France. 

12. The Swiss Protestants. — Zwinglius, a Swiss priest, 
started the revolt against the Church in Switzerland. In 
1518 he was called to the charge of the cathedral church 
in Zurich. He immediately began preaching against the 
pope, and proceeded to inveigh against the celibacy of 
the clergy, confession, fasting, and the ceremonies of the 
Catholic faith. He married in 1524. He and Luther did 
not agree in all their tenets — for instance, in the doctrine 
of the real presence of Jesus Christ in the Eucharist, which 
Luther maintained. Switzerland was made the battle- 
ground of religious strife. The opposing parties appealed 
to arms, and in one of the contests Zwinglius perished 
(1531). 

13. John Calvin (1509-1564).— A Frenchman was des- 
tined to carry on the work of the Eeformation in Switzer- 
land. John Calvin, born in ISToyon, Picardy, and destined 

11. How was Protestantism established in Sweden ? How in Denmark? 12. 
What of Zwinglius, his work and teaching 1 Describe his career. What was 
the effect of his teachings in Switzerland ? How did he end 1 



396 History of the World. [ a .d. 1509-1553 

for the Church, was dismissed the university for gross im- 
morality, studied law, and early imbibed the doctrines of 
the Eeformers. Driven from Paris, where the teachings of 
Luther had been condemned, he was protected at JSTerac 
by Margaret of Navarre, sister of Francis I. and a patron- 
ess of the new doctrines. There he began the compila- 
tion of his Institutes, or form of doctrine. He afterwards 
retired to Basle, in Switzerland, where he met the German 
Eeformers and .completed and published his Institutes 
(1535). These maintain that the greater part of mankind 
are predestined to perdition, because such is God's will. 
He denied the doctrine of the real presence in the 
Eucharist, renounced bishops and priests as well as the 
pope, and abolished festivals and sacred ceremonies. 

14. Calvin in Geneva. — In 1536 he went to Geneva, 
then distracted with the reform, which it had received 
from William Farel, also a Frenchman. There Calvin be- 
gan to preach. The pair were banished by the city coun- 
cil in 1538. In 1540 he married. In 1541 he was invited 
back to Geneva. The bishop was expelled and Catholic 
worship abolished. Calvin drew up what is called the 
presbyterial system of worship, which the Genevese accept- 
ed and which spread to other cities and lands. John 
Knox, a bad priest, a friend and disciple of Calvin's, took 
it into Scotland. Though Calvin managed to maintain 
his authority till his death, there were frequent disputes, 
civil and ecclesiastical, in Geneva. Michael Servetus, a 
Spaniard, and a convert to the reform, was condemned to 
death, with Calvin's consent, for the utterance of certain 
doctrines, and burnt at Geneva (October, 1553). 

15. Lutheranism in France. — Luther's heresy was con- 
demned by the Sorbonne. But the alliance of the French 

13. What of Calvin's early life ? What were his Institutes ? What was the 
substance of Calvin's doctrine ? 14. How did Calvin fare in Geneva ? What did 
he establish there ? Tell of Servetus. 



a.d. 1509-1515] Modern History. 397 

king with, the German princes favored it, as did also the 
social disturbances of the time. Francis I. issued some 
severe edicts against it (1535). These he afterwards modi- 
fied. During the reign of his successor, Henry II., the 
Protestants became much more numerous and aggressive. 

SECTION IV. Protestantism in England. 

16. Happy Opening of Henry's Keign. — Henry VIII. 
(1509-1547) succeeded his father, Henry VII., on the 
throne of England. By a dispensation of the pope he 
was allowed to marry Catherine of Aragon, the young 
widow of his brother Arthur, who had died after a six 
months' union. The accession of the young and popular 
prince was welcomed by the people as a relief from the cold 
and grasping rule of his father. An invasion of France 
which met with, some success increased the monarch's 
popularity. During his absence James IV. of Scotland 
invaded England, but was defeated and his army destroyed 
by the Earl of Surrey at Flodden Field (September 9, 
1513). Henry returned to enjoy a double triumph. 

17. Cardinal Wolsey. — Thomas Wolsey, an ecclesiastic 
of great ability and political sagacity, who had been chap- 
lain to Henry VII. and entrusted with some important 
missions by him, won favor with the young king ; was 
made his almoner, and soon after Archbishop of York 
(1514). In the following year he was made a cardinal 
by Pope Leo X. and lord chancellor by Henry. Most 
of the administrative power of the realm, as well as the 
chief power in spirituals, fell into Wolsey's hands. More 
a statesman than a churchman, and foud of power, he 
ruled the young king by guiding when he could and 
humoring him when he found it necessary. 

15. How did Lutheranisrn fare in France ? 16. Whom did Henry Till, marry 1 
How did Henry's reign open ? What happened at Flodden Field ? 17. Who 
was Wolsey ? How did he rise and to what ? 



398 History of the World. [a.d. 1509-1580 

18. Henry pleads for a Divorce. — The marriage of Henry 
VIII. with Catherine of Aragon was solemnized at Green- 
wich June 7, 1509. In 1521 Henry received from Pope 
Leo X. the title of Defender of the Faith for a book he had 
written against Luther. Henry had never been a moral 
man. He finally fell under the influence of Anne Boleyn, 
a maid of honor to the queen. Anne was a Lutheran. 
Feeling her power over the licentious king, she resolved on 
becoming Queen of England. Accordingly Henry began to 
agitate for a divorce from the pious and true wife to whom 
he had been married now nearly twenty years, alleging as 
his plea scruples of conscience at having married his bro- 
ther's wife. He appealed to Eome to grant him a divorce. 
The appeal, after the most careful examination, was reject- 
ed. Out of Henry's anger and lust grew the separation of 
England from Rome. 

19. Fall of Wolsey (1529-1530). — Henry's passions grew 
with his years. Wolsey's failure to procure the divorce 
led to his fall and disgrace. He died lamenting that he 
had not served his God as faithfully as his king (1530). 
Sir Thomas More, a zealous Catholic, and reputed to 
be one of the most learned men of his time, succeeded 
Wolsey as chancellor. Corruption had eaten its way into 
the English Church, and Henry found ecclesiastics ready 
to sustain him against Eome in the matter of divorce. 
Such was Cranmer, a secret adherent of Luther. But the 
arch-leader of the whole movement was Thomas Cromwell, 
who had formerly been a creature of Wolsey's, and who 
on that minister's fall succeeded in attaching himself to 
the service of the king. 

20. The King declared Supreme Head of the Church in 
England. — Under Cromwell's influence and advice Henry 

18. What title did Henry VIII. receive from the pope 1 Why did he seek a 
divorce? How did Eome act ? 19. What led to Wolsey's fall ? Who succeeded 
Wolsey ? Who abetted Henry in the divorce 1 



a.d. 1531-1534] Modern History. 399 

resolved on following the example of the German princes 
and breaking with Rome. In 1531 the clergy were com- 
pelled to acknowledge the king as " protector and only su- 
preme head of the Church in England." Henry had al- 
ready begun to fill his empty treasury from the possessions 
of the Church. In 1531 the divorce question was for the 
first time brought before Parliament. In 1532 the weak 
clergy, fearful of losing everything, petitioned the king in 
convocation to withdraw from the See of Rome. The com- 
mon people began to rise against the proposed changes. Sir 
Thomas More resigned his chancellorship. The queen had 
already been removed from court for refusing to renounce 
her rights, and Anne was given apartments in the palace. 
On January 25, 1533, the king's marriage with Anne was 
publicly announced. The pope -issued a decree of excom- 
munication against both. 

21. Divorce of Catherine; Execution of Fisher and More. 
— Convocation met and, in obedience to the king, declar- 
ed his marriage with Catherine null and void. A mock 
court, Cranmer presiding, summoned the queen to appear 
at Dunstable. She refused, and judgment was given 
against the marriage (May 23, 1533). A universal feeling 
of anger was aroused against the king both in and out of 
England. In 1534 Parliament, under Henry's direction, 
abolished the papal authority in England and passed an 
act of succession, settling the crown on the children of 
Henry and Anne, of whose union had been born the Prin- 
cess Elizabeth, the Princess Mary being the sole surviving 
child of the queen. Henry was declared to be supreme 
head of the Church in England. Bishop Fisher and Sir 
Thomas More were executed for refusing to take the oath 
of supremacy to the adulterous monarch. 

20. What title was conferred on Hemy 1 How did the English clergy act ? 
What changes took place at court? 21. By whom was the divorce proclaimed? 
What of the papal authority ? What of Fisher and More ? 



400 History of the World. [ A .d. 1535-1547 

22. Suppression of the Monasteries. — In 1535 Thomas 
Cromwell was made visitor-general of all the monasteries in 
England and the work of their spoliation and suppression 
began. A formidable insurrection, called the ' ' Pilgrimage 
of Grace/' sprang up in the north, but was bloodily put 
down. Queen Catherine died in 1536, and four months 
later Anne was beheaded by order of the king, and a new 
favorite, Jane Seymour, taken in her place. Of this union 
came Edward (October 12, 1537), his mother dying twelve 
days after his birth. Executions were frequent. By 1539 
the final dissolution of the monasteries had taken place 
and the six articles constituting the new Church of Eng- 
land were drawn up. 

23. Last Bays of Henry's Reign. — In 1510 Henry mar- 
ried Anne of Cleves, whom he soon after repudiated and 
took Catherine Howard in her stead. Catherine was 
speedily sent to the block, and the king then married 
Catherine Parr (1543), who survived him. In 1541 the 
aged Countess of Salisbury, last of the Plantagenets, was 
led to the block ; and Henry continued to the close of his 
reign to persecute Catholics and Reformers. The Earl of 
Surrey, head of the Catholic party, was one of Henry's 
last victims (1547), and the Duke of Norfolk, Surrey's 
father, only escaped by the king going before him. Henry 
died January 28, 1547, leaving a provision in his will that 
daily Masses should be said in perpetuity for his soul. 
He bequeathed the crown to his son Edward. 

24. Edward VI. (1547-1553).— Edward was only ten 
years of age on ascending the throne. The government 
during his minority was entrusted to a council. His 
uncle, Edward Seymour, was created Duke of Somerset, 
protector of the realm, and guardian of the king. His 

22. What became of the monasteries ? What was the Pilgrimage of Grace ? 
Describe the progress of events. 23. Tell of Henry's marriages ; of his execu- 
tions ; of his death and will. 24. Who governed during Edward YT.'s minority i 



a.d. 1547-1552] Modern History. 401 

brother, Sir Thomas Seymour, was appointed lord high ad- 
miral, and thus the Seymours really ruled the realm. 

25. Protestantism established in England. — The Sey- 
mours were a strongly Protestant family and set about mak- 
ing thorough and completing the schismatical work begun 
by Henry VIII. The young prince had been steeped in 
Protestantism from his cradle. Henry's " Six Articles " 
were repealed as being too closely allied to the Catholic 
creed. Men were sent to all parts of the country to 
preach against the Papacy, the mass of the English peo- 
ple being still Catholic. Uniformity of public worship was 
enforced and a Book of Common Prayer drawn up. The 
clergy were freed from their vow of celibacy. All persons, 
under severe penalties, were commanded to attend the 
public worship. Bonner, Bishop of London ; Gardiner, 
Bishop of Winchester, and others were deprived of their 
sees for refusing to conform to the new regulations. 

26. Fall of tne Seymours. — Several insurrections, some 
of a formidable character, broke out during this reign. 
The number of poor was largely increased by the closure of 
the monasteries, which deprived them of work and a means 
of livelihood. The laws against the poor were made very 
stringent. The Seymours quarrelled, and, at the instance 
of the Duke of Somerset, his brother, the admiral, was be- 
headed. The protector himself had grown enormously 
rich and aroused the enmity and jealousy of the other no- 
bles. A party was formed against him under Dudley, Earl 
of Warwick. He was finally dismissed and thrown into the 
Tower (October 4, 1549). Warwick succeeded to power 
and was created Duke of Northumberland. He had Somer- 
set attainted, accused of felony, and executed (January 22, 
1552). He then persuaded the king to exclude his sisters 

25. What measures did the Seymours take to establish Protestantism ? How 
did the bishops act? 26. Wbat was the effect of closing the monasteries 1 De- 
scribe the fall of the Seymours. Who took their place ? 



402 History of the World. [a.d. 1552-1554 

and bestow the succession on Jane Grey, daughter of the 
Marquis of Dorset and great-granddaughter of Henry VII. , 
who was married to Guilford Dudley, Northumberland's son. 
The king, always weakly, sank rapidly after this arrange- 
ment had been made, and died July 6, 1553. 

27. Queen Mary (1553-1558). — Northumberland pro- 
claimed his daughter-in-law queen and had her conducted 
to the Tower. The proclamation was coldly received by 
the people, who favored tbe Princess Mary. On hearing 
of Edward's death Mary at once claimed the throne, and 
the people flocked to her standard. Marching on Lon- 
don, despite the feeble opposition of Northumberland, 
she entered the capital in triumph. Northumberland 
and two of his chief abettors were executed as traitors. 
Suffolk and Lady Jane Grey were confined in the Tower. 
An insurrection led by Sir Thomas Wyatt, and in which 
Suffolk was implicated, led to their execution (1554). 

28. Catholicity re-established in England. — Mary began 
her reign by a general amnesty. The English people being 
still largely Catholic, the religious laws of Edward VI. were 
repealed by Parliament and those of Henry VIII. restored. 
Mary thus became, much against her will, head of the 
Church in England. Bishop Gardiner was appointed chan- 
cellor. Mary, whose hand had been much sought after in 
marriage, now selected as her spouse Philip of Spain, son 
of Charles V. The marriage, which was celebrated July 
25, 1554, was extremely unpopular in England. Both 
houses of Parliament next petitioned the queen to beg the 
pope to readmit the kingdom into the Catholic fold. The 
reconciliation was effected (November 30, 1554) in the 
presence of Cardinal Pole, the papal legate, a son of the 
Countess of Salisbury executed in the reign of Henry. 

What arrangement did Northumberland make for the succession ? 27. What 
followed on Edward's death? 28. How did Mary's reign open? Whom did 
Mary marry ? What request did the houses of Parliament make ? 



a.d. 1554-1558] • Modern History. 403 

Thus the established religion of the realm again became 
Catholic, and nonconformity, as in the reigns of Edward 
VI. and Henry VIII. , was made a penal offence. 

29. Persecutions. — This led to persecutions, and many 
nonconformists suffered death. Among these was Cran- 
mer, who first of all recanted, and, finding that did not 
avail him, went back again. He was burnt. This perse- 
cution darkened and embittered Mary's reign, which had 
opened so auspiciously. Her marriage, too, proved an un- 
happy one. For Philip's sake she engaged in war with 
France (1557) and lost Calais (1558), the last of the Eng- 
lish possessions there. Mary died in the summer of the 
same year, after recognizing the Princess Elizabeth as her 
successor. 

SECTION V. True Reform; the Council of Trent (1545-1563). 

30. Reforms decreed. — The Protestant Reformation had 
already made considerable progress when Pope Paul III. 
resolved on calling a general council to bring about needed 
reforms in the Church and refute the new errors. Owing 
to the disturbances of the time it was long before the coun- 
cil could assemble. It finally opened at Trent (December 
13, 1545) and lasted eighteen years, during the reigns of 
four popes. It proclaimed the authority of Catholic tradi- 
tion, the infallibility of the Church, the primacy of St. 
Peter and his successors, the utility of indulgences, the 
necessity of good works, the efficacy of the seven sacraments, 
the inviolability of marriage, together with other articles 
of Catholic faith, all of which had been denied in one way 
or another by the new Reformers. In addition important 
disciplinary measures were drawn up for the regulation of 
the bishops and the clergy, and the encroachment of secular 

How was the Catholic faith restored? 29. What led to the persecutions? 
What befell Cranmer ? Describe the close of Mary's reign. 30. Why was the 
Council of Trent called ? What did the council proclaim ? 



404 History of the World. - [a.d. 1519 

princes on the rights and freedom of the Church was con- 
demned. 

31. Great Saints and New Orders. — The sixteenth century 
was rich in great saints. Pope St. Pius V. and St. Charles 
Borromeo greatly aided true reform in the Church and 
among the clergy. New religious families sprang up : the 
Theatines, under St. Gaetan ; the Barefooted Carmelites, 
under St. John of the Cross ; the Carmelite Nuns, under 
St. Teresa ; the Congregation of the Oratory, under St. 
Philip ISTeri ; and, above all, the great Company of Jesus, 
under St. Ignatius of Loyola (1534). 



CHAPTER II. 
RIVALRY OF FRAMCE AND AUSTRIA. 

The rivalry of France and Austria in the sixteenth century comprises the 
struggle of Francis I. and Henry II. against Charles Y. and Philip II.. and ends 
with the treaty of Cambrai, which closed the Italian wars. 

SECTION I. Francis I. and Charles V. (1519-1547). 

1. Rival Claimants for the Imperial Throne. — The 

heresy of Luther had already begun to create new dis- 
sensions among the German states when the death of the 
Emperor Maximilian (1519) left the imperial throne va- 
cant. Francis I. immediately aspired to fill it, but had 
for a rival Charles, who had shortly before ascended the 
throne of Spain. Charles was the eldest son of Philip of 
Burgundy, Archduke of Austria, and Juana, daughter of 
Ferdinand and Isabella. The Emperor Maximilian was his 
paternal grandfather. 

31. Mention some of the great saints and orders of the sixteenth century. 
What does the rivalry between France and Austria embrace 'I 1. What followed 
on the death of Maximilian ? Who were rivals for the imperial throne ? 



a.d. 1506-1524] Modern History. 405 

2. Acquisitions of Charles V. — By the death of Philip in 
1506 Charles succeeded to the title and the possessions of 
the house of Hapsburg as well as to the dukedom of Bur- 
gundy. By the death of Ferdinand in 1516 he inherited 
Spain, the kingdom of Naples, and the newly-discovered 
continent of the West. Already the most powerful mon- 
arch in Europe, he was chosen Emperor of Germany over 
Francis (June 28, 1519). This led to the rivalry between 
Francis and Charles which embroiled all Europe in war. 

3. War between Charles V. and Francis I. — Excuses for 
quarrel were numerous, and Francis began by an expedi- 
tion into Navarre, which ended in defeat. The war spread 
into the duchy of Burgundy — called also the Netherlands — ■ 
and into Italy. Charles, attempting to invade France from 
the Netherlands, was checked at Mezieres by the gallant 
Bayard. Francis marched into the Netherlands. Charles, 
always good at alliances, had formed one with the pope 
and Henry VIII. of England. A papal army under Pros- 
per Colonna took Milan, and soon nothing was left to the 
French of their conquests in Italy save Cremona, At the 
same time Henry VIII. declared war against Francis (May 

'29, 1522), and an army of imperialists and English ad- 
vanced to within seven leagues of Paris. Angered at the 
unjust treatment he had received, the Constable de Bour- 
bon deserted to Charles. 

4. Battle of Pavia. — Francis, though his funds were 
exhausted, showed great bravery and resolution. He sent 
an army of thirty thousand men to Milan, but they were 
defeated. De Bourbon was one of the chief leaders against 
his countrymen. In a short time the French were driven 
from Italy, with the loss of the gallant Bayard (1524). 
They were followed by the imperialists, who besieged Mar- 

2. To what possessions did Charles Y succeed 1 3. Over what area did the 
struggle between Charles and Francis spread 1 Give a sketch of the struggle. 
What of De Bourbon ? 4. Sketch the campaign in Italy. 



406 History of the World. [a.d. 1524-1529 

seilles. Francis hastened to the relief of the city, drove 
the allies back into Italy, and, following them, laid siege to 
Pavia. Here he suffered a complete defeat and was him- 
self taken prisoner by Marshal Lannoy (February 24, 1525). 
The conditions of his restoration to liberty were extremely 
harsh, and were protested against even by Charles' allies. 
Charles, however, insisted, gained many promises, a large 
accession of territory, and the sons of Francis as hostages 
for their father. These were confirmed at the Convention 
of Madrid (1526). On regaining his liberty Francis repu- 
diated the whole and sent another army into Italy. 

5. The Peace of Cambrai (1529). — The pope, Clement 
VII., now sided with Francis, and the sympathy of Eng- 
land was with him. The imperialists defeated them, and 
De Bourbon marched on Eome, which was taken and 
sacked, though he lost his life in. the siege. The pope 
was made a prisoner, and so held by Charles for seve- 
ral months, but, after making important concessions, he 
was released. A French army under Lautrec came to 
the rescue, and, after gaining several victories, was deci- 
mated by disease before Naples (1528). Peace was finally 
concluded by the treaty of Cambrai (August 5, 1529). 
By this treaty Francis renounced his Italian claims, but 
was allowed to keep Burgundy. He also promised Charles 
two million crowns as ransom for his sons, and married 
Eleanor, queen-dowager of Portugal and sister to Charles. 

6. Reforms by Erancis I. — The treaty of Cambrai brought 
a brief respite of peace. This Francis utilized in attend- 
ing to home affairs. He retrenched expenses, founded the 
great College of France, and gave especial attention to 
the encouragement of letters and arts. Moved by gross 
insults to the Catholic faith and worship, he proceeded 

What happened at Pavia ? What conditions were imposed on Francis 1 5. 
What alliance was formed against Charles 1 Sketch the campaign. What was 
settled at Cambrai? 6. What reforms did Francis effect ? 



a.d. 1535-1547] Modern History. 407 

rigorously against the French Keformers, but relaxed his 
measures (1535) for political reasons. He reorganized the 
army and strengthened the nayy. During his reign 
French mariners discovered Canada. 

7. Peace again Broken. — Francis soon found another 
pretext for quarrelling with the emperor. The truth is, 
all these men, Charles, Francis, Henry VIII., regarded 
their kingdoms rather as personal property and as means 
of advancing purely personal interests than as great 
trusts confided for a time to their hands and guidance. 
Francis laid claim to Savoy, entered and overran it (1535). 
By way of retaliation Charles entered Provence. Francis 
made an infamous alliance with the Turks. The imperial- 
ists, wasted by famine and pestilence, were compelled to 
retire from Provence, and Charles' troops were driven from 
the north of France. An armistice was concluded at Mce 
(1538), arranging a truce for ten years. 

8. The Peace of Crespy (1544). — Four years later war 
broke out again. The league of Francis with the Turks 
had outraged Europe. Henry of England now took the 
side of Charles. France was invaded from the north and 
from the south. The French gained a great victory at 
Ceresole (April 14, 1544), but little came of it. The vic- 
tory was balanced by others of the imperialists, both on sea 
and land, and a peace favorable to Charles was finally con- 
cluded at Crespy (September 18, 1544). Peace was made 
with England in 1546. Francis died in the following year 
(March 31, 1547) and was succeeded by his son, Henry. 

SECTION II. Heary II. (1547-1559). 

9. Successes of Henry. — Henry pursued his father's policy. 
He was severe against the Protestants, who under Francis' 

7. How did the monarchs regard their kingdoms ? Sketch the now campaign. 
8. Why did Francis lose his allies 1 What yictory did the French gain 1 Who 
gained in the end ? 9. What policy did Henry II. pursue ? 



408 History of the World. [a.d. 1547-1557 

toleration had become more turbulent. He joined in alli- 
ance with Scotland, gained possession of Mary Stuart, 
whom his son, the Dauphin, married, and compelled the 
English to surrender Boulogne (1550). He made a secret 
alliance with Maurice of Saxony, who deserted Charles. 
By this alliance Henry succeeded in gaining possession of 
the three bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun (1552). 

10. Abdication of Charles V. — Charles, having pacified 
his German Protestant foes at the treaty of Passau (August 
2, 1552), attempted to retake the bishoprics, but was foiled 
before Metz, defended by Francis, Duke of Guise. After 
some successes he was again defeated at Renty (1554), and 
at the same time lost Savoy and Piedmont to the French. 
Charles now resolved on retiring from the world, announc- 
ing his intention at the Diet of Augsburg (1555). He left 
the German throne to his brother Ferdinand, and Spain, the 
Indies, Naples, and the Netherlands to his son Philip. Then 
he entered the monastery of St. Just, where he remained 
till his death (September 21, 1558). 

11. E"ew War and Disasters to the French. — The abdica- 
tion of Charles brought peace for a time, but the peace was 
soon broken. The Duke of Guise led an army into Italy 
to conquer Milan and Naples, then ruled by Philip's lieu- 
tenant, the Duke of Alva. Alva disposed of the French in 
two brief campaigns. Philip, through his wife, Mary, made 
an alliance with England. An army under the command 
of Duke Philibert of Savoy entered Picardy and besieged 
St. Quentin, defended by Admiral Coligny. The Constable 
Montmorency, hastening to relieve the place, suffered a dis- 
astrous defeat (1557), and St. Quentin fell. Other victories 
followed in rapid succession, and only the jealousy of the 
Spanish and German allies prevented a march on Paris. 

What important possessions did Homy II. gain? 10. What disasters hefcll 
Charles V. ? What strange resolve did he take ? To whom did he leave his pos- 
sessions ? 11. What followed Charles' abdication ? Sketch the campaign. 



a.d. 1558-1559] Modern History. 409 

12. Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis (1559). — The Duke of 
Guise suddenly appeared before Calais and took it (1558), 
thus capturing the last vestige of English possessions in 
France. He then invaded the Netherlands, but was defeat- 
ed by Count Egniont at the battle of G-ravelines. Henry 
was now led to conclude what to him was a disastrous peace 
at Cateau-Cambresis (April 2, 1559). France surrendered 
her dreams of Italian conquest. Savoy, which had been 
taken from Philibert, was restored to him, and Henry gave 
him his sister in marriage. His daughter he gave to Philip, 
whose wife, Mary of England, had died the year before. 
France retained the strong fortresses of Metz, Toul, and 
Verdun, together with Calais. 

13. Close of the Italian Wars. — Thus the Italian wars 
ended. They had racked Europe for sixty-five years, greatly 
aided the spread of heresy, brought kingdoms and peoples 
to the verge of ruin, and left the east of Europe open to the 
Turks. After the peace Philip sailed to Spain with his 
bride, leaving his half-sister, Margaret, Duchess of Parma, 
as regent of the Netherlands, and Alva in charge of his 
Italian possessions. During the celebrations attending the 
double wedding Henry was mortally wounded in a tourna- 
ment by Montgomery, the captain of his guards (July 10, 
1559). He left the throne to his son, Francis II., husband 
of Mary, Queen of Scots. 

SECTION III. The Ottoman Turks; Soliman II. (1520-1566). 

14. Turkish Conquests. — While Christian Europe was 
rending itself in the West and South the Turks were mak- 
ing solid progress in the East. Selim I., after wresting 
Syria, Palestine, and Egypt from the Sultan of Egypt, died 
and was succeeded by his son Soliman, called the Magtiifi- 

12. Who took Calais 1 What was the treaty of Cateau-Cambresis ? 13. 
What was the effect of the Italian wars on Europe ? How did Henry II. die ? 
Who succeeded him 1 14. How were the Turks progressing ? 



410 History of the World. [a.d. 1521-1547 

cent. He overran Hungary and took Belgrade (1521). He 
next resolved on taking Rhodes, defended by the Knights 
of St. John under their grand master, L'Isle-Adam. 

15. Siege of Kho&es (1522). — Soliman sent an over- 
whelming army and fleet against the garrison of seven 
thousand men. For six months this gallant little band 
kept the whole Turkish force at bay. Wasted by famine 
and disease, they were at last compelled to surrender by 
honorable capitulation what the Turks could not take by 
force of arms. They had held the island two hundred and 
twelve years. Charles V. awarded to them the isle of 
Malta for their residence. 

16. Siege of Vienna. — In 3526 Soliman made a second 
invasion of Hungary. Louis II. met him at Mohacz 
(August 29, 1526), but was defeated and slain. The queen 
took the crown to her brother, Ferdinand of Austria, who 
was acknowledged king by the nobles of the western 
counties. The popular party chose John Zapolya, the 
waywode of Transylvania, who put himself under the pro- 
tection of Soliman, thus further weakening the kingdom. 
Soliman took Buda in 1529 and advanced on Vienna at the 
head of a great army. After repeated and desperate as- 
saults he was compelled to retire, leaving behind him eighty 
thousand dead. A second attempt failed in 1532. 

17. Capture of Tunis (1535). — In the East Soliman added 
to his possessions Persia, Armenia, and Irak (1534). In 
1536 he joined Francis I. against Charles V., and sent the 
renegade Barbarossa to sweep the Mediterranean. He con- 
quered Croatia in 1537 and Yemen in 1538. On the death 
of John Zapolya (1540) Soliman upheld his son, John Sig- 
ismund, against Ferdinand, from whom in 1547 he exacted 
a humiliating truce. Barbarossa, having seized Algiers in 

15. Who besieged Rhodes? Describe the siege. 16. What happened at 
Mohacz ? Tell of the dissensions in Hungary. What great city was besieged ? 
17. What conquests and alliance did Soliman make ? What of Hungary ? 



*a.d. 1518-1541] Modern History. 411 

1518, converted it into a den of pirates. Conquering Tu- 
nis, lie made it his chief headquarters for operations on the 
Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts. Thousands of Chris- 
tians were led captive thither, and Charles V. resolved on 
putting an end to the infamous traffic. Giving the com- 
mand of his fleet to Andrew Doria, the Genoese admiral, 
Charles took Tunis and released tAventy thousand Christian 
slaves (1535). A second expedition against Algiers failed 
(1541). 



CHAPTEE III. 
RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE. 

In France, as in Germany, immediately after the Keformation the ques- 
tion of religion entered very largely into politics. Armed dissension and 
conspiracy against the monarch arose under Francis II., developed under 
Charles IX., and were continued under Henry III. and Henry IT. 

SECTION I. Francis II. (1559-1560). 

1. Rivalry of the Guises and Bourbons. — Francis II. as- 
cended the throne at the age of sixteen. His wife, Mary 
Stuart, was niece of the Duke of Guise and of Cardi- 
nal Lorraine. The family of the Guises had rendered im- 
portant services to the state, and on Francis' accession they 
were called to the direction of affairs. This gave great 
umbrage to the princes of the blood, Anthony de Bourbon, 
King of Navarre, and his brother Louis, Prince of Conde. 
These, with Admiral Coligny, set themselves at the head of 
the Protestants, who, under the vacillating policy of Fran- 
cis I. and during the troubled reign of Henry II., had 
made considerable progress. They were followers of Cal- 
vin rather than of Luther. 

Tell of the exploits of Barharossa. Where and by whom was Barbarossa 
defeated ? How did the Reformation affect France 1 1. Whom did Francis II. 
select as advisers 1 What was the result of this choice ? 



412 History of tee World. [a.d. 1559-1562 

2. Conspiracy. — A vast conspiracy was formed, with 
Conde at the head, and embracing the chief nobles of 
France. The court was sitting at Amboise. The plan 
was to enter the town on a fixed, day, massacre the 
Guises, and. seize the king. The Duke of Guise was ap- 
prised of the plot on the eve of its execution. As the 
conspirators entered they were cut down. The conspiracy 
was unmasked. A number of executions followed. Conde 
was arrested and condemned as a traitor, when the sudden 
death of the king prevented the execution of the sentence. 

SECTION II. Regency of Catherine de' Medici. 

3. Religious Dissensions. — Francis' younger brother, 
Charles IX., a child of ten, succeeded, with his mother, 
Catherine de' Medici, as regent. Catherine had been im- 
plicated in the Calvinist plots. Toleration was now the 
order of the day, and hot disputes broke out between the 
respective followers of Luther and Calvin. A famous dis- 
cussion was held at Poissy, in presence of the court, be- 
tween Catholic doctors and Protestant ministers. The chief 
result of the conference was the conversion of Anthony of 
Navarre, who abjured his heresy (1561). 

4. The Triumvirate. — In January, 1562, was published 
an edict granting Protestants liberty of worship outside 
cities, and forbidding them to interfere with Catholic 
worship. This satisfied neither party. A conflict between 
some Protestants and the servants of the Duke of Guise 
led to a general outbreak (1562). The one party flew to 
arms under the Prince de Conde, the others under the 
Duke of Guise. Civil war raged and was abetted by 
Elizabeth of England, who received the town of Havre in 

2. What conspiracy was formed and with what object? How did the conspi- 
rators fare 1 3. What followed on the death of Francis II. ? What occurred at 
Poissy ? 4. What edict was published and with what result 1 



a.d. 1562-1569] Modern History. 413 

reward for assistance given Conde. The King of Navarre 
now assumed the lead of the Catholic party. Under him 
were Conde, the Constable de Montmorency, and Marshal 
St. Andre, called the "Triumvirate." The royal army 
triumphed, but the King of Navarre fell at the siege of 
Rouen. The Protestants were defeated. Conde and Mont- 
morency were captured. 

5. Peace of Amboise (1563). — Orleans, the Protestant 
stronghold, still held out. Conde was on the point of tak- 
ing it when he was assassinated by a Protestant (1563). St. 
Andre had already met a like fate. Catherine, being rid of 
the "Triumvirate," assumed the reins herself and published 
the " Peace of Amboise," granting complete liberty of wor- 
ship to the Protestants (1563). This brought peace for a 
time, and both parties united in wresting Havre from the 
English. 

6. Renewal of the Quarrel. — But even if the mass of the 
people were willing to unite, the leaders would not. Henry 
of Lorraine, who succeeded his father as Duke of Guise, 
swore to avenge his murder, in which he believed Coliguy 
to have had a hand. New dissensions arose. Conde and 
Coligny attempted to surprise the court at Meaux. The 
attempt failed, and Montmorency defeated Conde at St. 
Denis, but fell in the hour of victory (1567). A new peace 
followed, with renewed concessions on the part of the queen- 
mother, but it only lasted a few months. 

7. Peace of St. Germain (1570). — There was a fresh out- 
break in 1568. Protestantism was now interdicted under 
penalty of death. Henry of Anjou, brother of the king, 
defeated the rebels at Jarnac, where Conde was slain, and 
again at Moncontour (1569), where Coligny lost half his 
army. Coligny, who was always at his best under defeat, 

Describe the Triumvirate and what came of it. 5. What assassinations 
took place ? Tell of the peace of Amboise. 6. What caused a fresh outbreak? 
7. Describe the progress of events. 



414 History of the World. [a.d. 1570-1572 

rallied a new army, and, profiting by the divisions of his 
foes, threatened the capital. A compromise was effected by 
the peace of St. Germain (1570), and Ooligny restored to 
court favor. The Protestants, or Huguenots, as they were 
called, were allowed to retain the fortresses of Eochelle, 
Cognac, Montauban, and Charite. 

8. St. Bartholomew (1572). — The peace of St. Germain, 
like all the others, was of short duration. It was broken by 
a bloody massacre of the Huguenots on St. Bartholomew's 
day (August 24, 1572). As a pledge of reconciliation with 
the Protestants the hand of Margaret of Valois, sister of 
the king, had been promised to Henry de Bourbon, the 
young King of Navarre, and now one of the Huguenot 
leaders. At the sudden and suspicious death of Jeanne 
d'Albret, Henry's mother, the mutual mistrust of the op- 
posing parties again broke out. The jealousy of the chiefs 
was always ready to take advantage of such a state of feel- 
ing. The Duke of Guise had neither forgotten nor for- 
given the death of his father. Catherine began to tremble 
for the royal authority. Paris was full of Huguenots, come 
to attend the wedding festivities. Coligny was fired at and 
seriously wounded by an assassin. This exasperated the 
Huguenots. Their threats and Coligny's power over the 
king alarmed Catherine, and it was resolved to forestall the 
Huguenots by massacring them. 

9. The king, wrought on by his mother, reluctantly sanc- 
tioned the order for a general massacre of the Huguenots, 
which was carried into effect in Paris and in the principal 
provincial cities. Coligny was stabbed by partisans of the 
Duke of Guise. Henry of Navarre and Concle only escap- 
ed by professing to become Catholics. Estimates as to the 
number of victims vary considerably. It was certainly very 

Tell of the peace of St. Germain. 8. How was the peace broken? Describe 
the conflict that ensued. What resolve was taken by the court? 9. Describe 
the massacre of St. Bartholomew. 



a.d. 1572-1576] Modern History. 415 

great, and the probabilities are that it lay somewhere be- 
tween ten and twenty thousand. 

10. lews of the Massacre in Rome.-iA Te Deum was 
sung in Rome, by order of Pope Gregory XIII., in honor 
of the event. But this was done under the false impres- 
sion that the massacre was begun on the part of the Cal- 
vinists, and that it all grew out of a foiled conspiracy 
against the French state and the Catholic Church.| The 
massacre only rendered the surviving Huguenots more des- 
perate than ever. They held their strong places in spite 
of all the efforts of the crown. Henry of Anjou was called 
away from the siege of La Rochelle to assume the crown 
of Poland. Charles, worn out by intrigue, remorse, and 
disease, died in 1574. 



SECTION HI. Henry III. (1574-1589). 

11. The "Holy League."— As Charles died childless, the 
throne passed by right to his brother Henry, now King 
of Poland. Henry returned to France and mounted the 
throne. The Huguenots had now allied with the German 
Protestants, but these were beaten at Dormans by the 
Duke of Guise (1575). Henry, jealous of Guise's popular- 
ity, concluded the peace of Beaulieu (1576), which was 
more favorable to the Huguenots than to the victorious 
Catholics. The latter were naturally indignant. A "Holy 
League" was formed against the sectaries under the lead- 
ership of the Duke of Guise. Henry contrived to make 
himself nominal leader, but the Leaguers, mistrusting him, 
took their orders from Guise, 

12. Henry of Navarre, having escaped from the con- 
finement in which he had been placed since St. Bartholo- 

10. How was the news of the massacre received in Eome ? What was the re- 
sult of the massacre 1 11. Who succeeded Charles ? How did Henry act 1 What 
was the Holy League ? 12. Who again led the Huguenots ? 



416 History of the World. [a.d. 1577-1589 

mew's massacre, again assumed the lead of the Huguenots. 
A. new war broke out. The Leaguers stood aloof from 
the king, who was compelled to sign another peace at 
Bergerac (1577). Another revolt was ended by the treaty 
of Fleix (1580). 

13. Henry of Navarre. — Henry had lost the confidence 
of both sides, and the dissoluteness of his life belied the 
promise of his hardy youth. By the death of his younger 
brother, the gallant Duke d'Alencon (1584), the succes- 
sion passed to Henry of Navarre, the king himself being 
childless. But Henry was a Protestant, and the French 
law made it imperative that a Catholic prince should suc- 
ceed. To provide against the threatened danger the 
Leaguers assembled at Paris. Guise proposed to make the 
Cardinal de Bourbon, uncle to Henry of Navarre, heir- 
presumptive to the throne. The king tried to play be- 
tween both parties. The Huguenots, emboldened by their 
prospects and by the vigor of their leader, defeated the 
royal forces at Coutras (1587). The Leaguers again ac- 
cused the king of betraying them. The citizens of Paris 
rose, the royal guard was disarmed, and Henry barely 
escaped with his life (May, 1588). 

14. Assassination of the King. — The League was now in 
control, and the king acceded to their demands only to 
gain time. Fearful of their power, he had the Duke of 
Guise assassinated, together with his brother, the cardinal 
(December, 1588). The League swore vengeance against 
the murderer, and Henry made an alliance with Henry of 
Navarre. The princes marched upon Paris. During the 
siege the king was stabbed by Jacques Clement, a Domi- 
nican monk and fanatic. He named Henry of Navarre 
his successor (August 2, 1589). 

What followed ? 13. What objections were there to Henry of Navarre suc- 
ceeding? How did Guise act? Sketch the course of events. 14. What course 
did the king take ? What befell him ? 



a.d. 1589-1597] Modern History. 417 

SECTION IV. Henry IV. (1589-1610). 

15. Civil War continues. — The League nominated Car- 
dinal Bourbon under the title of Charles X. Henry, de- 
serted by the Catholic nobles, was compelled to withdraw 
from Paris. Closely pursued by the Duke of Mayenne, he 
defeated him near Arques. Returning to Paris, he seized 
the suburbs, but his forces were insufficient to carry the 
city. Again retreating, he withdrew to Tours (1589). In 
the following year a victory over Mayenne at Tvry left 
the road open to Paris. Henry blockaded the city for 
four months and reduced it to the verge of extremity, 
when the approach of Alexander Farnese with an army 
of auxiliaries sent from the Netherlands by Philip of 
Spain compelled him to retreat (1590). He then besieged 
Rouen, which offered as stout a resistance as Paris. Par- 
ma hastening to its aid, Henry attacked him near Au- 
male, but was defeated, and narrowly escaped (1592). 

16. Henry abjures Protestantism. — All France was weary 
of the protracted struggle, and the Leaguers grew suspi- 
cious of Philip's designs. The States- General were con- 
voked at Paris by Mayenne to elect a Catholic king. The 
Spanish ambassador, in the name of his sovereign, claimed 
the throne for the infanta of Spain, a granddaughter of 
Henry II. Thereupon Henry took the final step and ab- 
jured Protestantism at St. Denis (July, 1593). He was 
crowned at Chartres in the following February, and in 
March Paris opened its gates to the king. 

17. Edict of Nantes (1598). — Philip urged the League 
to hold out, and Mayenne held Burgundy. The Spaniards 
were defeated at Foutaine-Francaise (1595), and May- 
enne submitted in 1596. The Spaniards held Picardy, 
but Henry took Amiens (1597) and in the following year 

15. What followed on the death of Henry III. ? Sketch the struggle between 
Henry of Navarre and the League. 16. How did the States-General act ? How 
did Henry gain the crown 1 17. What course did Philip of Spain take 2 



418 History of the World. [a.d. 1598-1610 

made himself master of Brittany. All France being now 
in his hands, the war with Spain was ended by the treaty 
of Vervins, where the Spaniards surrendered their con- 
quests (1598). He pacified the Huguenots by the Edict 
of Nantes (April 13, 1598), which granted them all civil 
and political rights. 

18. Death of the King. — Henry now set about restoring 
order in the distracted kingdom. He encouraged trade, 
commerce, agriculture, home industries, and foreign enter- 
prise. He checked conspiracy with a severe hand, reor- 
ganized the army, constructed fortresses, and improved the 
navy. Having in a measure healed the wounds of the na- 
tion, he again took up the schemes of foreign ambition 
and aimed at the destruction of the house of Hapsburg. 
When about to take command of his army in the north 
he was stabbed by a fanatic named Kavaillac (May 14, 
1610), 



CHAPTER IV. 
PHILIP II. AND ELIZABETH. 

In the latter half of the sixteenth century the struggle for the political 
supremacy in Europe of the Catholic and Protestant powers had for leaders 
Philip of Spain on the one side and Elizabeth of England on the other. 

SECTION I. Philip II. (1556-1598). 

1. Conquest of Portugal. — Philip, on his accession to the 
throne of Spain, was the most powerful monarch in Eu- 
rope. In addition to the possessions to which he succeeded 
he accjuired the kingdom of Portugal. Sebastian suc- 
ceeded his grandfather, John III., on the throne of that 

Describe the treaty of Yervins. What was the Edict of Nantes I IS. What 
reforms did Henry institute 1 How did he die ? Who were rivals for European 
supremacy '! 



a.d. 1557-1566] Modern History. 419 

kingdom in 1557. Full of warlike ardor, lie was tempted 
into an expedition to Morocco, where, despite his bravery, 
he lost his army, the flower of his nobility, and his own 
life. Left dead on the field of battle, a number of preten- 
ders arose to claim the throne, and Portugal, given over 
to anarchy, came easily under the influence of its power- 
ful neighbor. Philip sent the Duke of Alva to occupy 
the kingdom (1580), which remained in Spanish hands 
for sixty years. 

2. Siege of Malta (1565). — Philip, who took upon him- 
self the championship of Christendom, resolved on break- 
ing the power of the Turks. In trying to win Tripoli 
from Soliman his fleet was utterly defeated (1560). Soli- 
man now undertook to drive the Knights of St. John from 
Malta, and made extraordinary preparations for the expe- 
dition. The appeals for aid of La Yalette, the grand mas- 
ter, were unheeded among the contentions of the Christian 
princes, and the knights were left to their own resources. 
A force of about nine thousand men defended the island 
against an army of thirty thousand and a fleet of two hun- 
dred sail. The siege lasted from May to September (1565), 
the defence being one of the most heroic in history. When 
succor came to the besieged their number had dwindled 
down to six hundred men, while the Turks, after losing 
the flower of their army, were compelled to retreat. 

3. Death of Soliman (1566). — To avenge his defeat Soli- 
man invaded Hungary, but was detained two months 
before Szigeth by a garrison of three thousand men under 
Count Zrinyi, the ban of Croatia. So great were the 
Turkish losses that Soliman died of a fit of apoplexy 
brought on by rage. The fortress was finally taken, the 
garrison falling sword in hand ; but it cost the Turks 

1. Tell of the expedition of Sebastian of Portugal. What followed from his 
death ? 2. What reverse did Philip meet 1 Describe the siege of Malta. 
3. Tell of Soliinan's invasion of Hungary and the siege of Szigeth. 



420 History of the World. [a.d. 1566-1571 

twenty thousand men. Soliman left an empire to his son, 
Selim II., extending from Algeria to the Euphrates and 
from the Adriatic to the Black Sea. 

4. Selim II. ; Battle of Lepanto. — Selim inherited his 
father's policy and hatred of the Christians, but not his 
father's capacity. He wrested Tunis from Spain and Cy- 
prus from Venice. The fall of Cyprus was attended by 
such barbarities as to arouse Europe. Pope Pius V. preach- 
ed a crusade. A formidable fleet was equipped by Spain 
and Venice, and the command given by Philip to his half- 
brother, Don John of Austria. The rival fleets met in 
the Gulf of Lepanto, the Turks being superior in point of 
number. After a desperate conflict the Christian arms pre- 
vailed and the naval power of the Turks received a fatal 
blow (October 7, 1571). Thirty thousand Turks, together 
with their admiral and chief officers, perished. Twenty 
thousand Christian captives were released, and an immense 
booty fell into the hands of the conquerors. 

5. Philip's Policy in the Netherlands. — Meanwhile the 
Netherlands were proving a thorn in Philip's side. Pro- 
testantism prevailed there to some extent, and Philip re- 
solved on extirpating it. But apart from this his rule was 
extremely harsh and arbitrary, and the chief nobles, some 
of them Catholics, began to fall from him. They formed 
a league called the " Compromise of Breda," for the sup- 
pression of the Inquisition and the revocation of all edicts 
against heretics. 

6. The "Beggars." — One of the regent Margaret's coun- 
sellors contemptuously alluded to the petition addressed to 
her as coming from a set of beggars and unworthy atten- 
tion. The appellation was at once accepted as a badge 
of distinction, and the patriotic party dubbed themselves 

4. Who succeeded Soliman ? Tell of Selim's conquests. Describe the battle 
of Lepanto. 5. What of the Netherlands and the Compromise of Breda? 
ti. Wbo were the "Beggars'"? 



a.d. 1567-1578] Modern History. 421 

"Beggars" (gueux). A revolt broke out and the Duke of 
Alva was sent to restore order (1567). 

7. Alva in the Ketherlan&s. — Alva entered the province 
at the head of an army of veterans. He pursued the 
" Beggars " with extreme severity. The chief nobles were 
taken and beheaded. Numbers perished on the scaffold as 
well as in battle. The popular party held out bravely un- 
der William, Prince of Orange. Alva displayed as con- 
summate generalship in the field as he did lack of policy 
in the cabinet. He compelled William to quit the country 
without even giving him the chance of a battle. He pro- 
ceeded to grind down the people with impossible taxes, 
which became so odious that at last all trade stopped in 
the provinces. Universal revolt ensued, and the people 
obtained some signal successes (1572). The Prince of 
Orange returned, but the news of the massacre of St. Bar- 
tholomew terrified his followers and he had to retire to 
Holland. -Alva at length asked to be recalled (November 
17, 1573). 

8. The Confederation of Utrecht (1579). — Alva had va- 
rious successors, among them Don John of Austria, who 
died there of fever, or poison, as some supposed (October 
1, 1578). But all the efforts of Spain to subdue the re- 
volted provinces proved unavailing. William was given al- 
most supreme control in Holland. At Ghent the States- 
General met in October, 1576, and formed a league against 
Spain while proclaiming freedom of worship to ail denomi- 
nations. Don John defeated them near Gembloux (1578), 
but died soon after, and was succeeded by his nephew, Al- 
exander Farnese. Alexander won over the Catholic or 
Walloon, provinces from William. Meanwhile seven of the 
states had joined in a confederation for mutual alliance and 

7. Who was sent to the Netherlands ? How did Alva act ? wlho was the popu- 
lar leader 1 Describe events. 8. What followed Alva's recall % What was the 
Confederation of Utrecht? 



422 History of the World. [a.d. 1579-1598 

defence at Utrecht (January, 1579). This was the founda- 
tion of the Dutch Republic. On July 26, 1581, the United 
Provinces, assembled at the Hague, proclaimed their inde- 
pendence, offering the sovereignty to the Duke of Anjou, 
brother of the King of France, William retaining the gov- 
ernorship of Holland and Zealand. Anjou was expelled in 
1582, and William assassinated in 1584. After a prolong- 
ed struggle the independence of Holland was recognized at 
the treaty of Westphalia (1648). 

9. The Spanish. Armada. — Elizabeth of England gave 
constant aid to the revolted provinces, while her vessels 
scoured the seas after Spanish merchantmen and wrought 
great havoc to Spanish commerce. To avenge himself, and 
nominally to avenge the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, 
Philip fitted out an enormous fleet, to which he gave the 
name of the " Invincible Armada," under the command of 
the Duke de Medina-Sidonia. The Armada was to have 
joined a squadron from the Netherlands under Alexander 
Earnese and proceed to the invasion of England. After 
being greatly damaged by storms the fleet was attacked by 
Lord Howard, whose superior seamanship enabled him to 
inflict severe loss on the Spaniards with but little damage 
to himself. Storms did the rest, and only a shattered 
fragment of the " Invincible Armada " ever reached Spain 
(1588). 

10. War with France. — The jealousy between Philip and 
Henry IV. continued, and resulted in a war in 1595, which 
was not advantageous to Philip and was ended at the peace 
of Vervins (1598). In the same year Philip died in the 
magnificent palace of the Escurial, which he had built for 
himself. 

Where was the foundation of the Dutch Eepublic laid ? Sketch progress of 
events. When was Holland's independence recognized? 9. How did Queen 
Elizabeth act ? What did Philip do ? Tell of the Armada. 10. What of the war 
between Philip and Henry IV. ? 



a.d. 1558-1563] Modern History. 423 

SECTION II. Elizabeth (1558-1603). 

11. Protestantism re-established. — Elizabeth, who during 
the reign of Mary had professed and practised Catholicity, 
threw off the mask as soon as she ascended the throne. 
She recalled the Protestant councillors whom Mary had 
dismissed. She was an illegitimate child, and had been 
so pronounced by Kome. She had also been declared ille- 
gitimate by the English Parliament, with the sanction of 
her father, after the execution of Anne Boleyn. The act 
declaring her illegitimacy was never repealed, although her 
right of succession was restored previous to a proposed 
marriage between her and Philip of Spain. After the 
death of Edward VI. the Protestant party in England cen- 
tred their hopes on Elizabeth. 

12. The Catholic party looked to Mary Stuart, widow of 
Francis II., who, in view of Elizabeth's illegitimacy, was 
nearest heir to the throne. Her claim was confirmed by 
Pope Paul IV. Doubtless these facts greatly influenced 
Elizabeth in her adherence to Protestantism and in the 
cruel persecution of her unfortunate kinswoman. 

13. Persecution of the Catholics. — Elizabeth hastened to 
proclaim herself supreme head of the Church, and the 
statutes passed for the revival of the Catholic faith were 
repealed. The bishops, with the exception of the Bishop 
of Llandaff, having refused to take the oath of supremacy, 
were dismissed, and most of them died in prison. The 
queen created a hierarchy of her own under Matthew 
Parker, formerly a chaplain of Anne Boleyn, and set him 
over the see of Canterbury. From this succession proceed 
the orders of the Anglican Church. 

14. The Established Church. — By the act of uniformity 
(1558) the Booh of Common Prayer was restored. The 

11-12. How was Protestantism re-established in England ? What was the 
question between Elizabeth. Rome, and Mary Stuart ? 13. What did Elizabeth 
proclaim herself 1 How did the bishops act ? How came Anglican orders * 



424 History of the World. [a.d. 1563-1566 

Forty-two Articles of Edward VI.'s reign were condensed 
into Thirty-nine (1563), which have since remained the 
embodiment of the doctrine of the Anglican Church. To 
celebrate Mass was punished as an act of high treason. 
Thus for the fourth time within twenty-eight years was 
the established religion of England changed. 

SECTION III. Mary Stuart. 

15. Mary returns to Scotland. — After the death of her 
husband Mary Stuart resolved on returning to her own 
kingdom of Scotland. She applied for a safe-conduct 
through England, but it was refused by Elizabeth. Eng- 
lish cruisers were sent to intercept her, but she escaped 
them and landed at Leith (August 19, 1561). She found 
the Protestant party in the ascendant. 

16. Troubles with the Nobles. — John Knox, Calvin's dis- 
ciple, had already introduced Presbyterianism, which was 
made the established religion of Scotland (1560). Mary 
asked for toleration, Avhich was barely granted. Her chief 
advisers were her half-brother, the Earl of Murray, the 
Earl of Morton, and Maitland of Lethington, all of whom 
were in the pay of Elizabeth, and Murray secretly aspir- 
ing to the crown. 

17. Marriage with Darnley. — Contrary to the wish of 
Elizabeth, Mary married Lord Darnley (July 29, 1565), a 
near relative of both queens. M array rebelled, but had 
to fly. Conspiracy centred around Mary, and Darnley 
made himself the tool of the conspirators. He was im- 
plicated in the murder of Eizzio, the secretary of the 
queen (1566). Mary was made prisoner, but effected her 
escape and received Murray back into favor. On June 

14. How came the Thirty-nine Articles 1 How many changes of religion had 
England experienced within twenty-eight years ? 15. What of Mary Stuart's 
return to Scotland ? 16. Tell of Mary's troubles. 17. Whom did Mary marry ? 



a.d. 1568-1568] Modern History. 425 

19, 1566, a son was born to her, who afterwards became 
King of England and Scotland. 

18. Bothwell and Mary. — The birth of this child caused 
disturbance in England, where Elizabeth refused to wed, 
and where there was much alarm at the prospect of a 
Catholic heir to the English crown. Elizabeth and her 
ministers fomented the Scottish strife. The Earl of Both- 
well, a bold and ambitious man, now forced his way into 
Mary's favor. A plot for the destruction of Darnley, in 
which all the Scotch leaders were implicated, was con- 
cocted and carried into effect on the night of February 
9, 1567. Two months later Bothwell seized the person 
of the queen and forcibly carried her off. She was com- 
pelled to marry him (May 15). This forced marriage ga^e 
countenance to a rumor that implicated Mary in the mur- 
der of Darnley and in a criminal passion for Bothwell. 
Neither rumor had foundation. 

19. Mary Hies to England. — The conspirators next turned 
against Bothwell, who had proved the most successful of 
the band. Edinburgh was seized, and Mary, deserted by 
her troops, compelled to surrender at Carberry Hill (June 
15). Bothwell fled never to return. Mary was imprisoned 
in Loch Leven Castle and forced to abdicate (July 24) in 
favor of her infant son, Murray being appointed regent. 
She escaped (May 2, 1568). Followers flocked to her, but 
she was finally defeated by Murray at Langside (May 13). 
£>he then fled for refuge to Elizabeth. 

20. Mary and Elizabeth. — Mary's refuge proved a prison. 
Elizabeth and her ministers affected to believe the charges 
made against Mary by the conspirators. She asked to be 
allowed to leave the kingdom, but her request was refused. 
A mock examination, most unfair in its conduct to the 

The result? IS. Why was the English court alarmed? What of Bothwell, 
Darnley, and Mary ? 19. What occurred at Carberry Hill, Loch Leven, and Lang- 
side ? What course did Mary take ? 20.' How was Mary received in England 1 



426 History of the World. [ A .d. 1568-1587 

injured queen, took place, but nothing could be proved 
against her. A non-committal sentence was pronounced 
on both sides. Mary, however, was not released, but her 
chief accuser, Murray, was sent back to Scotland loaded 
with marks of Elizabeth's favor. 

21. The Babbington Conspiracy. — The destruction of the 
Scotch queen was determined on by Elizabeth's ministers 
with Elizabeth's connivance. The chief purpose, doubtless, 
was to secure the Protestant succession in England. Va- 
rious plots for Mary's release were set on foot in England. 
The treatment of her jailers became extremely harsh and 
cruel. The imprisoned queen had a perfect right to at- 
tempt her escape. In 1585 Parliament passed a law in- 
volving in high treason not only those who might "com- 
pass matters tending to the death " of the Queen of Eng- 
land, but those for whose benefit such matters might be in- 
tended. Next year arose the Babbington conspiracy, which 
Cecil used to serve his purpose. The conspiracy, concoct- 
ed by a foolish lad, had for object the assassination of 
Elizabeth and liberation of Mary. 

22. Execution of the Queen of Scots (1587). — Mary was 
tried on this charge. She acknowledged attempting to es- 
cape, but denied strenuously attempting or compassing in 
any way the death of the Queen of England. JSTor could 
the charge be proved against her. For two months Eliza- 
beth hesitated signing the death-warrant, hoping that her 
victim might meet her death in some other way. She 
even urged Sir Amias Poulet to rid her of her prisoner. 
Poulet, harsh as he was, refused ; the sentence was at 
last signed, and Mary Stuart was executed at Fotheringay 
(February 8, 1587), after a captivity of nearly nineteen 
years. 

21. Describe the plot against Mary's fife. What law was passed to condemn 
her ? Tell of the Babbington conspiracy. 22. Describe Mary Stuart's last trial. 
Where and when was she executed ? 



a.d. 1587-1603] Modern History. 427 

23. This murder shocked all Europe, which might, had 
it the will, have prevented it. Mary's son James talked 
much of avenging his mother, but a rich present and the 
promise of the English crown easily appeased him. Philip 
of Spain used the death as an additional pretext for fit- 
ting out the Armada, whose fate we have seen. 

24. Renewed Persecution; Death of Elizabeth. — The ex- 
pedition of the Armada gave Elizabeth and her ministers 
a new excuse for persecuting the Catholics, although the 
Catholics, in the hour of the nation's peril, had gathered 
gallantly to the national defence. Several executions took 
place, and many fines, imprisonments, and confiscations. 
These continued down to Elizabeth's death. Nor was the 
rising Protestant sect of Puritans wholly spared. The 
queen mixed herself up with all the troubles in Europe. 
Philip of Spain and she were steadfast foes to the last. 
Her fleets beat his at sea and reaped a rich booty, while 
she attained a partial success on land. Cadiz was taken 
by the English in 1596. All through her reign she was 
much under the influence of favorites, but had the sagacity 
to retain her able though unscrupulous ministers, whose 
policy lifted England into the position of one of the lead- 
ing powers of Europe. Her court was brilliant though 
dissolute, and great names in literature illustrate her age. ' 
She died miserably, March 24, 1603, having designated 
James of Scotland as her successor. 

23. How was the news of Mary Stuart's execution received in Europe ? 24. 
What resulted from the Armada expedition ? What of England and Spain ? 
What of Elizabeth and her statesmen ? Eor what is her reign illustrious ? 



428 History of the World. [a„d. 1610-1624 

CHAPTER V. 
LOUIS XIII (1610-1643)— THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 

SECTION I. Concini, De Luyues, and Richelieu. 

1. Concini. — Louis XIII. succeeded his father at the age 
of nine. His mother, Maria de' Medici, became regent, and 
called Concini, an Italian of her suite, into favor. He was 
made prime minister, to the great dissatisfaction of the 
French. The administration of Concini was very distaste- 
ful to the nobles about the court. Conde rose in arms and 
compelled Concini to yield to all his demands. Conde's 
arrogance led to his imprisonment in the Bastile. But 
the king himself was weary of Concini, who was assassi- 
nated with Louis' connivance (1617). 

2. Richelieu. — De Luynes, who was the chief instru- 
ment in this murder, was called by the king to the chief 
power. Maria de' Medici was exiled to Blois. Her almo- 
ner, Eichelieu, Bishop of Lu9on, who had left the career 
of arms for that of the Church, accompanied her. He 
succeeded in effecting a reconciliation between the mother 
and son (1620), was himself recalled to court, and married 
his niece to the nephew of De Luynes. He was made car- 
dinal and a member of the council of state. De Luynes 
dying in 1621, Richelieu soon succeeded him as premier. 

SECTION II. Ministry of Richelieu (1624-1642). 

8. Policy of Richelieu. — Richelieu had a triple policy : 
1. The complete extinction of feudalism and subjection of 
the nobles to the royal authority ; 2. The subjection of the 
French Calvinists ; 3. The elevation of France at the ex- 
pense of the honse of Austria. In carrying out this 

1. Whom did Maria de' Medici appoint prime minister 1 What was the result ? 
What hefell Concini ? 2. Who was now called to power ? What of Richelieu 1 
Who succeeded De Luynes ? 3. Describe Richelieu's policy. 



a.d. 1624-1632] Modern History. 429 

policy and governing the realm he had to contend not 
only against foreign foes bnt also against domestic in- 
trigue. 

4. Richelieu and the Huguenots. — To make France a 
unit he began with the Huguenots. These were aided 
by the English. In a short time Richelieu had confined 
them to La Rochelle, their great stronghold, which he 
besieged. The English fleet, under Buckingham, was de- 
feated. The defence of the city was most obstinate, but 
it finally had to succumb (October 28, 1628). The cap- 
ture of La Rochelle was a death-blow to French Protestant- 
ism as a political power. Richelieu treated the rebels mild- 
ly and granted them freedom of worship (1629). 

5. Intrigues against Richelieu. — Over the Austrian policy 
Richelieu and Maria de' Medici quarrelled, and their for- 
mer friendship became a rooted hatred. She joined the 
intrigues against the minister and nearly overwhelmed 
him, when Richelieu's own courage and address won the 
day with the king (1630). Some of Richelieu's enemies 
were executed, others imprisoned. Gaston of Orleans fled 
to Brussels, where he kept up his intrigues. Maria de' Me- 
dici was exiled from France (1631). Orleans, with Spanish 
aid, entered France and joined his forces with those of Mar- 
shal Montmorency. They were defeated at Castelnaudary, 
and Montmorency was taken and executed (1632). Or- 
leans again escaped ; but his ally, the Duke of Lorraine, 
lost his duchy. Other intrigues were crushed in like 
manner. 

6. Richelieu's Foreign Policy. — To humble Austria Riche- 
lieu leagued with the English, Danes, and Lutheran princes 
of Germany. He furnished money to Gustavus Adolphus. 
After the capture of La Rochelle he sent an army into 

4. What of Eiehelieu and the Huguenots ? Describe the siege of La Rochelle. 

5. Who intrigued against Richelieu ? What happened at Castelnaudary ? 

6, With whom and against whom did Richelieu ally 1 



430 History of the World. [a.d. 1552-1608 

Italy to protect the Duke de JSTevers in possession of the 
duchy of Mantua and marquisate of Montferrat againgt 
the Duke of Savoy. Savoy was soon lost and part of Pied- 
mont, and the French, were . only got rid of by ceding to 
them the defiles of the Alps and the city of Pinerolo 
(1630). Austria was compelled to acknowledge Nevers as 
Duke of Mantua. 

SECTION III. The Thirty Years* War (1618-1648). 

7. Origin of the War. — The Thirty Years' War in Ger- 
many grew out of the troubles of the Reformation. By 
the treaty of Augsburg each state was allowed the privi- 
lege of prescribing its own form of worship, the inhabi- 
tants, Protestant or Catholic, being at liberty to emigrate 
to where their religion was protected. The Protestants re- 
tained the ecclesiastical possessions they had seized on pre- 
vious to the peace of Passau (1552). To guard against 
further appropriations the Catholics introduced an " Ec- 
clesiastical Reservation" clause, which provided that all 
prelates who in the future should leave the Church should 
surrender their benefices. Notwithstanding all agreements 
and treaties there were constant religious contentions. In 
fact, religion at this time entered so largely into politics 
that the one became indistinguishable from the other. The 
Lutherans and Calvinists fought against each other, while 
both united against the Catholics. 

8. The "Evangelical Union " and "Catholic League" in 
Germany. — Rudolph II. (1576-1612), who succeeded his 
father, the Emperor Maximilian, was not the man for the 
hour, and the ecclesiastical quarrels broke out with new 
bitterness. The Protestants formed an "Evangelical 
Union" for mutual assistance and protection (1608). This 

Describe the French campaign in Italy. 7. What grew out of the Pro- 
testant Reformation in Germany ? What was the "Ecclesiastical Reservation" 
clause 1 8. What were the " Evangelical Union " and the " Catholic League " 1 



a.d. 1609-1619] Modern History. 431 

was followed by the "Catholic League," headed by Maxi- 
milian, Duke of Bavaria (1609). 

9. Troubles in the Empire. — Meanwhile Eudolph was 
drawn into disputes with his brother Matthias, whom he 
had set over Austria. Matthias quelled a revolt among 
the Hungarians, who had invited Bocskay of Transylva- 
nia and the Turks to aid them against the house of Haps- 
burg (1606). Matthias, afterwards uniting with these, forced 
Rudolph to cede Hungary, Moravia, and Austria to him, 
and promise him the succession in Bohemia (1608). A 
further dispute led to the cession of Bohemia, Silesia, and 
Lusatia, with guarantee of religious freedom to the Bohe- 
mian Protestants. Rudolph dying without issue, Matthias 
was chosen to succeed him (June, 1612) on the throne of 
an empire rent by dissensions. 

10. Revolt of Bohemia. — Matthias could only stop the ad- 
vance of the Turks on Vienna by suing for peace (1615). 
The example of revolt which he himself had given was not 
lost. He issued a proclamation against both the Catholic 
and Protestant leagues. His proclamation was disregarded 
(1617). He ceded the crown of Bohemia to his cousin 
Ferdinand, grandson of Ferdinand I., and had him elected 
King of the Romans, with right of succession in Hungary 
(1617). The Bohemians revolted under Count Thurn, and 
the revolt was joined by the whole Evangelical Union. 

11. Ferdinand II. (1619-1637).— The greater part of 
Bohemia was soon in the hands of the Protestants, and 
Ferdinand was besieged in Vienna, when Matthias died 
(March, 1619). Ferdinand held out until relieved, and 
then, repairing to Frankfort, claimed the imperial crown. 
The Catholic electors voting for him, he was crowned 
emperor. The states of Bohemia offered the crown to 

9. What troubles arose in Germany ? What cessions were wrung from Eu- 
dolph ? Who succeeded Rudolph 1 10. How did Matthias' reign open 1 What 
happened in Bohemia ? 11. How did Ferdinand come to the throne ? 



432 History of the World. [ a .d. 1619-1625 

Frederick V., elector palatine and head of the Evangeli- 
cal Union. Hungary, Bohemia, and Transylvania joined 
against Ferdinand. 

12. Ferdinand's Triumph; Tilly. — Against them Ferdi- 
nand sent the forces of the Catholic League under Maximi- 
lian and Count Tilly. Upper Austria was subdued. John 
George, the Protestant Elector of Saxony, declared against 
Frederick and overran Lusatia, while the Spaniards, under 
Spinola, entered the Lower Palatinate. Tilly advanced to 
Prague and cut to pieces the army of the "Winter 
King," as Frederick was called for his brief reign (1620). 
The Catholic worship was re-established. Frederick was 
declared to have forfeited the electoral dignity and the 
Upper Palatinate, which were conferred on Maximilian. 
The Protestant Union was dissolved. 

13. Ernest, Count of Mansfeld, still held out, aicted 
by George Frederick, Margrave of Baden-Durlach, and 
Christian of Brunswick. These men were rather mili- 
tary adventurers than upholders of a great cause. Tilly 
marched against them, beat them, and drove them from 
the Palatinate. Bethlen Gabor of Transylvania concluded 
peace in 1624, and the Catholic party was triumphant. 

14. Wallenstein; Peace of Ltibeck (1629).— The enmity 
of France and the subsidies of England soon rekindled 
the flames of revolt. Eichelieu supplied Ernest of Mans- 
feld with funds and played upon the ambition of Chris- 
tian IV., King of Denmark, a kinsman of the defeated 
Frederick, whose father-in-law was James I. of England. 
In 1625 the states of Lower Saxony were up in arms, and 
Christian of Denmark, Christian of Brunswick, and Mans- 
feld were in the field. The imperial treasury was exhaust- 
ed, but Count Wallenstein offered of his own means to 

By what states was the succession disputed ? 12. Who was Ferdinand's com- 
mander? Describe the progress of events. 13. Whom did Tilly nest subdue ? 
14. What caused the new outbreak ? 



a.d. 1628-1630] Modern History. 433 

raise and equip an army of twenty thousand men. His 
offer was accepted and lie was made generalissimo. He 
met Mansfeld at Dessau (April, 1626), destroyed Lis army, 
and pursued him into Hungary. In August Tilly crushed 
Christian of Denmark at Lutter. Tilly being wounded, 
"Wall ens tein followed them up, and, driving the Danes into 
Jutland and onwards, occupied Mecklenburg and Pomera- 
nia, and was only stopped at the walls of Stralsund (1628). 
Christian IV. hastened to sign the peace of Llibeck, by 
which he recovered his provinces on condition of desert- 
ing his allies and ceasing to meddle with German affairs 
(1629). 

15. Wallenstein dismissed. — The Protestants were again 
subdued, and Ferdinand decreed that they should restore 
all the endowments they had seized contrary to the "Ec- 
clesiastical Reservation" of 1555. Wallenstein was entrust- 
ed with the execution of the edict. He allowed his sol- 
diers to commit the most revolting excesses, and both Ca- 
tholics and Protestants felt the grievance of his exactions. 
His enemies were numerous and powerful, and Richelieu 
was for ever intriguing. Ferdinand, anxious to have his 
son declared King of the Romans, assembled the diet at 
Ratisbon (1630). One of the conditions of acceding to his 
wishes was the dismissal of Wallenstein. This was done, 
whereupon the electors proceeded to break their word to 
the emperor. 

SECTION IV. The Swedish Period (1630-1635). 

16. Ghistavus Adolphus. — Richelieu now brought Gusta- 
vus Adolphus, King of Sweden, into the field. G-ustavus 
was son of Charles IX., successor of Gustavus Vasa, to the 

How came Wallenstein on the scene 1 Describe the ensuing campaign. How 
did it close ? 15. What trust was given to Wallenstein? How did he use it'? 
Why was he dismissed ? 



434 History of the World. [ a .d. 1630-1632 

exclusion of the Catholic Sigismund, King of Poland, who 
was the lawful heir. He was a man of extraordinary ac- 
tivity and military genius, and had mastered Denmark, 
Poland, and the Czar of Russia, when called to take part 
in the German conflict. 

17. Gustavus in Germany. — Leaving his kingdom in the 
charge of the Chancellor Oxenstiern, Gustavus landed at 
the mouth of the Oder with twenty thousand men (June 
24, 1630). Within a month he occupied Pomerania, which 
he followed up by the occupation of Mecklenburg. Within 
eight months he captured eighty fortified places. 

18. Gustavus defeats Tilly. — Tilly commanded the impe- 
rial forces and was investing Magdeburg, which Gustavus 
hastened to relieve. Before he could reach it the city was 
stormed and sacked. The Elector of Saxony joined Gus- 
tavus (September, 1631), and the two advanced against 
Tilly. Novel tactics and youthful impetuosity proved too 
much for the veteran general. He was defeated for the 
first time at Breitenfeld, near Leipsic (September 7, 1631). 
This great victory roused the courage of the Protestants, 
who at once rose to their new leader. 

19. Victories of Gustavus. — The Elector of Saxony en- 
tered Bohemia. Gustavus, marching into Franconia and 
the Palatinate, again defeated Tilly at Wiirzburg. He win- 
tered at Mentz. Ferdinand recalled Wallenstein ; but Gus- 
tavus opened the spring campaign (April, 1632) by striking 
the Austrians at Lech, near Augsburg, where Tilly received 
his last defeat and death-wound. Munich fell, Bavaria was 
in their hands, and the elector fled for refuge to Ratisbon. 
The Protestant peasants of Upper Austria rose, and the 
Swedes were victorious as far as Lake Constance and the 
Tyrolese mountains. 

16. Who was Gustavus Adolphus 1 17. Describe Gustavus' early exploits. 18. 
Tell of the meeting between Tilly and Gustavus. 19. What further victories 
did Gustavus win ? What befell Tilly ? 



a.d. 1632-1635] Modern History. 435 

20. Death of Gustavus Adolphus (1632) ; Wallenstein re- 
called. — And now came Wallenstein on the scene at the 
head of forty thousand men. He drove the Saxons from 
Bohemia, entered Prague, effected a junction with the Elec- 
tor of Bavaria, and advanced against Gustavus, who was 
entrenched near Nuremberg. Gustavus was compelled to 
retire. Wallenstein was ravaging Upper Saxony, and on 
November 5, 1632, the two armies faced each other at 
Lutzen. A desperate battle ensued the next day. Gus- 
tavus fell mortally wounded, but the Swedes avenged his 
death by a signal victory. 

21. Death of Wallenstein. — The death of Gustavus was 
regarded as a calamity by the Protestants. Wallenstein did 
not pursue his advantage, but wasted time in negotiations 
and political intrigue. Oxenstiern carried on the war on 
the part of the Protestants (1633). Wallenstein' s inactiv- 
ity led to suspicions of his loyalty, and he was secretly de- 
prived of his command in favor of the emperor's son, Fer- 
dinand ; but, fearful of his power, he was assassinated by 
Captain Devereux, an officer of Butler's Irish Dragoons in 
the service of Austria (February 25, 1634). 

22. Treaty of Prague (1635). — The emperor's son, Fer- 
dinand, assisted by Gallas and Piccolomini, assumed com- 
mand of the imperial forces. A Spanish army under 
Charles of Lorraine joined them, and on September 6 
they inflicted an overwhelming defeat on the Protestant 
forces under Bernhard of Weimar and Horn at JSTordlin- 
gen. The Elector of Saxony next deserted the Protestant 
cause for that of the emperor (1635) at the treaty of Prague, 
which renewed the Restitution Edict. The other Protes- 
tant states folloAved, and Sweden found herself abandoned, 
when Richelieu again came to her assistance. 

20. Who succeeded Tilly ? Describe the battle of Lutzen. 21. How did Wal- 
lenstein now act 1 ? What befell Wallenstein ? 22. What happened at Nordlin- 
gen ? Tell of the treaty of Prague. 



436 History of the World. [a.d. 1635-1643 

SECTION V. The French Period under Louis XIII. (1635-1643). 

23. War between Spain and France. — Renewing Lis alli- 
ance with Sweden, Richelieu declared war against Spain. 
The French gained a brilliant victory at Wittstock over 
John George and Hatzfeldt (September 24, 1636), and ad- 
vanced into the Austrian territory. But the Spaniards in- 
vaded Picardy, and the allied forces carried victory almost 
to the gates of Paris, capturing Corbie. Richelieu alone 
stood firm and restored the courage of the French. Cor- 
bie was retaken and the enemy compelled to retreat. 

24. Victories of the French. — The emperor died in 1637 
and was succeeded by his son, Ferdinand III. The war 
continued, and in February, 1638, Bernhard of Saxe- Wei- 
mar, who had entered the French service, gained a great 
victory over the imperialists at Rheinfelden. In Decem- 
ber he took the strong fortress of Breisach and became 
master of Alsace. He died suddenly in 1639, and the 
French took command of his army. 

25. Death of Richelieu. — Arras fell next, which led to 
the conquest of the province of Artois (1640). Other -vic- 
tories followed in quick succession, and Perpignan opened 
its gates to the French as Richelieu lay on his death-bed 
(1642). He left the direction of affairs to Mazarin, his 
confidant. He was a statesman rather than a churchman, 
and was willing to sacrifice religion to what he consid- 
ered the glory of France. He was soon followed to the 
grave by Louis, who left the crown to his son, a boy of 
five (1643). 

23. What new war did Richelieu undertake 1 How did the war progress 1 24. 
What ally did the French gain ? Tell of Bernhardt successes. 25. Describe the 
death of Richelieu. What was his character 1 



THIRD EPOCH. 

FROM THE ACCESSION OF LOUIS XIT. TO HIS DEATH (1643-1715). 

This epoch, called the age of Louis XIV., is divided into three periods : the 
ministry of Mazarin ; the first wars and conquests of Louis up to 1688 ; the 
final surrender of many of these conquests. Sweden loses its preponderance 
in northern Europe, and Austria triumphs over Turkey. A revolution occurs in 
England, where a commonwealth supplants royalty for a time. 



CHAPTER I, 
LOTTIS XIV. AND MAZARIN (1643-1661). 

Mazarin brings the Thirty Tears' "War to an end, triumphs over the Fronde, 
and imposes on Spain the treaty of the Pyrenees. 

SECTION I. Regency of Anne of Austria (1643-1651). 

1. Mazarin. — Louis' mother, Anne of Austria, was made 
regent, and chose Cardinal Mazarin for her prime minis- 
ter. The nobles resented this appointment and formed a 
strong party against Mazarin, headed by the Duke de 
Beaufort, grandson of Henry IV. Failing to oust Maza- 
rin, they attempted to assassinate him. Their plot being 
discovered, Beaufort and the leading members of his cabal 
were banished from court. 

2. Conde and Turenne; Close of the Thirty Years' War 
(1648). — Meanwhile the war with Spain and Germany was 

WTiat does the age of Louis XIV. embrace'? 1. Who was regent for Louis? 
Who was prime minister ? How was Mazarin's appointment received 1 What 
plot was formed against brm ? 

437 



438 History of the World. [a.d. 1643-1G50 

continued. The Spaniards invaded Champagne, but "were 
beaten by the young Duke d'Eughien, afterwards Conde, 
at Kocroy (1643). He followed up his victory by taking 
Thionville, and, marching into Germany, defeated Mercy, 
the imperialist general, in a three days' battle near Frei- 
burg (1644). Later on he was joined by Turenne, and 
together they gained another great victory over Mercy at 
ISTordlingen, where Mercy fell (1645). A final victory of 
Conde's at Lens led to the peace of Westphalia and the 
close of the Thirty Years' War (1648). By this treaty 
Holland and Switzerland were declared independent of the 
empire. France gained Alsace, Toul, Metz, and Verdun. 
Sweden was given Pomerania west of the Oder. There 
were various other provisions, but the crowning work of 
the treaty was the establishment of religious equality 
among the various creeds. 

SECTION II. The Fronde (1643-1652); Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659). 

3. Civil War. — Mazarin's enemies were still active. He 
had exhausted the treasury in prosecuting the war, and 
to raise money levied new imposts on Paris. This was the 
signal for an outbreak that developed into the "War of 
the Fronde" (1648). The Parliament of Paris sided with 
the people against the court. The regent and Mazarin 
were compelled to fly to St. Germain. Mazarin was pro- 
scribed, troops were levied, and Paris put in a state of de- 
fence. Conde came to the rescue of the court, peace was 
concluded, and a general amnesty proclaimed (1649). 

4. Defeat of the Fronde. — Conde now assumed so arro- 
gant a tone that the cardinal threw him into prison with 
some of his abettors (1650). This caused another outbreak 
in Paris. Conde and his companions were released and 

2. Describe Conde's exploits. What led to the peace of Westphalia 1 What 
were the terms of the treaty ? 3. What was the war of the Fronde ? By whom 
was peace restored? 4. What caused the new outbreak ?' 



a.d. 1651-1661] Modern History. 439 

Mazarin fled to Germany (1651). Condi's triumph was 
short. He set himself at the head of the Frondeurs ; but 
Marshal Turenne, who had abandoned their cause for that 
of his sovereign, was opposed to him. He beat him near 
Bleneau (April, 1652), and, following him up to Paris, beat 
him again at the Faubourg Saint- Antoine. 

5. Triumph, of the King. — Meanwhile the king, still only 
thirteen, had declared himself of age (1651) and assumed 
royal authority. He established his court at Poitiers, and 
thither went Mazarin at the head of six thousand men. 
His arrival caused new commotion in Paris, which had 
opened its gates to Conde. But all were weary of the 
struggle, and in spite of Conde peace was made with the 
queen, Mazarin, to appease the Parisians, tendering his 
resignation and withdrawing from the court. The king 
entered Paris in triumph, and Conde fled for refuge to 
his old foes in the Spanish Netherlands (1652). 

6. Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659). — Louis proscribed 
Conde, who at the head of a Spanish force had invaded 
the north of France. He was beaten by Turenne at Arras 
(1654), and decisively at Dunkirk (June 14, 1658). This 
victory led to the treaty of the Pyrenees, which brought 
to a close the war with Spain and the troubles of the 
Fronde (1.659). Mazarin negotiated the treaty, which 
proved his crowning triumph. By its terms France ac- 
quired the county of Eoussillon, the province of Artois, 
with several cities and territories in Flanders, Hainault, 
and Luxembourg. Conde was pardoned, and Louis mar- 
ried Maria Theresa, eldest daughter of Philip IV. Maza- 
rin continued to rule the kingdom till his death in 1661. 
Thenceforth Louis carried on the government in person, 
without the assistance of a prime minister. 

Who came to the rescue of the court and with what result ? 5. What action 
did the king now take? Hove was peace restored? 6. What of Turenne and 
Coud6 ? What were the terms of the treaty of the Pyrenees ? 



440 History of the World. [a.d. 1603-1605 

SECTION III. England : James I. (1603-1625) : Charles I. (1625-1649) ; 
the Commonwealth (1649-1660) ; the Protectorate (1653-1658). 

7. James Stuart. — The proclamation by Cecil of the ac- 
cession of James, son of Mary, Queen of Scots, to the 
English throne was hailed with acclamation in London. 
Eemoved from his mother's care, James had been brought 
up a Presbyterian. On arriving in England he became an 
Anglican, maintaining his supremacy in the Church and 
making the most of his royal authority and prerogatives. 
A croAvd of Scotchmen accompanied him, and to many of 
these he gave office and preferment. His favoritism in 
this respect and his meanness in many others disgusted 
the English. 

8. Increase of Royal Authority. — After the Wars of the 
Eoses, which had proved . so destructive to the nobles, the 
power of the crown had greatly increased. Under the Tu- 
dors it became a tyranny. But with the destruction of 
the nobles the people were gradually rising into power. 
The great cities, with their guilds, became the centres of 
wealth, and to them monarchs looked for support in their 
wars and to fill their exchequers. 

9. Rise of the Puritans. — The religious disturbances of 
the preceding reigns had created a restive spirit among 
the English people. The Protestants split up into sects, 
and many of these were quite indisposed to accept the 
newly-established Anglican Church in place of the old. 
Some of them pressed for a purer church and purer doc- 
trine. These were called Puritans and were Calvinistic in 
their tenets. James maintained that a hierarchy was the 
strongest support of the throne ; consequently he perse- 
cuted the Puritans, as he also did the Catholics. 

10. The Gunpowder Plot. — The Catholics had expected 

7. How was the accession of James Stuart received in England ? Was the king 
popular ? 8. In what relations stood the crown to the people ? 9. Describe the 
gpread of religious dissensions in England. Who were the Puritans ? 



a.d. 1605-1628] Modern History. 441 

much from the son of Mary, Queen of Scots. They were 
treated more harshly than under Elizabeth. Driven to 
desperation, some of their number, under the lead of Ro- 
bert Catesby, conceived the mad and wicked project of 
blowing up king, lords, and Commons at the opening of 
Parliament. The execution was entrusted to Guy Fawkes, 
a soldier of fortune. The government receiving informa- 
tion, the plot was discovered and the chief consjrirators 
were taken and executed (1605). 

11. King James' Bible. — Religious questions, foreign ne- 
gotiations, and inglorious wars, together with the troubles 
and follies of the king's favorites, form the chief features 
of this reign. By royal authority the English version of 
the Bible known as the King James' was prepared. 

12. Charles I. and the Revolution (1625-1649).— 
Charles, who succeeded his father on the throne, had 
been brought up with extraordinary ideas of the sacred- 
ness and prerogatives of royalty. He was narrow-minded 
and obstinate, though possessed of some good qualities. 
His education and disposition led him into conflict with 
an already provoked Parliament and people. 

13. Charles and the Parliament. — To satisfy the Puri- 
tans, who were now strong in Parliament, he revived 
the laws against Catholics. The Puritans were greatly 
averse to his marriage with a Catholic princess, Henri- 
etta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. of France. Charles 
met Parliament with a demand for money. To this the 
Commons replied by drawing up a list of sixteen abuses 
and demanding the redress of these before making their 
grants. 

14. The Petition of Right (1628).— At every meeting 
of Parliament the conflict deepened. The king would 

10. What occasioned the Gunpowder Plot ? Give details of the plot. 11. For 
what is James' reign remarkable ? 12. Describe the character of Charles I. 
13. How did Charles' reign open 1 



442 History of the World. [a.b. 1628-1642 

concede nothing ; the Commons retaliated by refusing 
money. The grievances of the people were embodied 
in the "Petition of Eight" (1628), which set forth 
the acts of tyranny that had long been practised, and 
begged that they should cease. The king resolved on 
ruling without Parliament. Taxes were levied without its 
consent, on the mere strength of the royal prerogative. 
John Hampden, a Buckinghamshire gentleman, brought 
matters to a test by refusing to pay. He was summoned 
to trial, and, though judgment was given against him, 
the heart of the people went with him. 

15. Wentworth. — Charles was also troubled with reli- 
gious difficulties. Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury and 
the chief spiritual adviser of the king, made himself ob- 
noxious both in England and Scotland to all who disbe- 
lieved in the Anglican Church. Buckingham fell by the 
hand of an assassin. "Wentworth, Lord Strafford, suc- 
ceeded him in the king's favor. An able and resolute 
man, he deserted the popular cause for that of the king, 
whom he urged to be "thorough" in all he undertook. 
Wentworth was impeached and executed. 

16. The Scottish League and Covenant. — Through Laud 
Charles attempted to force the English liturgy on the 
Scotch people. All Scotland rose against this, and a 
solemn League and Covenant was formed to maintain the 
faith and discipline of the Scottish Kirk. Charles re- 
solved on suppressing the Covenant. The Covenanters 
retorted by abolishing episcopacy and preparing for war. 
The English Puritans, sided with the Scotch. The Par- 
liament, refusing to grant supplies, was dissolved. The 
Scotch made a successful invasion of England. 

17. Charles, finding it impossible to proceed without 

14. What was the Petition of Eight ? What of John Hampden ? 15. What of 
Laud, Buckingham, and Wentworth 1 16, Why did the Scotch rise ? What was 
the League and Covenant ? 



a.d. 1642-1644] Modern History. 443 

supplies, again summoned Parliament, which again refused 
grants without redress of grievances. The king impeached 
the leaders of the opposition on the charge of high trea- 
son, and at the head of his guards entered the House of 
Commons to arrest the offending members. It was a fatal 
act and led to the outbreak of the civil war which had 
long been impending. 

18. Civil War in England.— On July 12, 1642, Parlia- 
ment voted to raise an army. On August 22 the royal 
standard was unfurled at Nottingham Castle. The no- 
bles and gentry for the most part sided with the king, 
the middle classes and yeomanry with the Parliament. 
The Koyalists were known as " Cavaliers," the Parlia- 
mentarians as " Soundheads " because of their fashion of 
close-cropped hair. The first important engagement was 
at the village of Keynton, near Edgehill (October 23). 
It was indecisive. The early successes of the war were 
on the side of the Eoyalists. The Parliamentarians had 
no general capable of coping with Prince Eupert, the 
king's nephew, who was a brilliant cavalry commander, 
till Fairfax and Cromwell came into prominence. 

19. Oliver Cromwell. — Cromwell had been a resolute 
member of the opposition in Parliament. He was just as 
resolute in- the field. A zealous Puritan, he infused a re- 
ligious glow into the followers he raised. This imparted 
a new aspect and bitterness to the contest. Cromwell's 
" Ironsides," his own regiment, raised, drilled, and 
preached to by himself, came to be regarded as invinci- 
ble, like their leader. His military capacity soon showed 
itself to be superior to that of any of the Parliamentary 
generals. 

20. Battle of Marston Moor. — The Parliamentarians 

17. How did Charles treat the Parliament 1 18. How did Parliament retaliate ? 
How was the country divided 1 Sketch the early phases of the struggle. 19. 
What of Oliver Cromwell and his Ironsides ? 



444 History qf the World. [a.d. 1644-1649 

joined with the Scotch Covenanters against the king. At 
the battle of Marston Moor (July 2, 1644) they inflicted 
a severe defeat on the Koyalists, the success being chief- 
ly owing to Cromwell's coolness and stubborn courage. 
Cromwell now came rapidly to the front and took the 
lead of the party called "Independents" in matters of 
religion. Their policy was dead against the king. 

21. Battle of Naseby; Surrender of the King. — The 
chief command was given to Fairfax, but the real com- 
mander was Cromwell. He and his Ironsides again turned 
the day at Kaseby (June 14, 1645), which virtually ended 
the war. Charles was hopelessly beaten. Cromwell fol- 
lowed up his victory by a series of rapid blows at every 
Eoyalist stronghold. Charles was left without an army in 
the field. He surrendered himself to the Scots (May 5, 
1646), who, after haggling over the price, sold him to 
the English (January 30, 1647). 

22. Execution of Charles I. (1649).— Charles might have 
retained his throne had he only been open and honest, and 
conceded the just demands of his people. But no reli- 
ance could be placed on his word, and he would concede 
nothing. Cromwell's army was now the real power in 
England. He decided that it was an issue of life or death 
between himself and the king. Charles was arraigned at 
Westminster (January 20, 1649) before a high court of 
justice specially organized. The charge against him was 
that of high treason for levying war against the Parlia- 
ment and kingdom of England. Sentence of death was 
passed upon him and he was beheaded (January 30, 1649). 

23. The Commonwealth (1649-1660).— Cromwell was now 
the most powerful man in England. After the execution 
of the king a Council of State was formed for the trans- 

20. Describe the battle of Marston Moor. 21. Who commanded the Parlia- 
mentarians f What happened at Naseby 1 What befell Charles ? 22. Describe 
the trial of Charles I. His sentence 1 



a.d. 1649-1658] Modern History. 445 

action of public affairs, Cromwell being one of the mem- 
bers. He was also made lord-lieutenant of Ireland, where 
the people had risen in defence of Charles. He returned 
to England after a campaign that was a series of butch- 
eries, and marched against the Scotch, who had set up 
Charles' son as king. His Scotch campaign was at first 
unsuccessful, but ended successfully at Worcester (Septem- 
ber 3, 1651). There the Scotch, who with the young king 
had invaded England, were wholly defeated and the royal 
cause lost for the time being. 

24. Cromwell made Protector. — Cromwell's ambition grew 
with his fortunes. He resolved to rule England at his own 
pleasure, and aspired to royalty. He dissolved the trouble- 
some Parliament (April 20, 1653). The Council of State 
was dissolved at the same time. He summoned a sort 
of parliament in his own interest, famous as the "Bare- 
bones" Parliament. At his instigation they had a new 
constitution published, and himself made Lord Protector, 
the supreme authority resting in him and the Parliament 
(December 16, 1653). 

25. England under Cromwell. — Henceforth Cromwell ruled, 
and when Parliament opposed him he dissolved it. Eng- 
land was under a military tyranny. The Protector's foreign 
policy was strong and successful, and he made England's 
power felt and respected abroad. By another Parliament 
summoned for September 17, 1656, it was voted that Crom- 
well take the title of king. But the opposition of the 
army and its chief generals was so great that he reluc- 
tantly refused. He soon after dissolved this Parliament. 
The rest of his life was spent in a tangle of plots that 
wore him out, and he died on September 3, 1658. He was 
succeeded in the Protectorate by his son Eichard, a man 

23. Who now became the leader of affairs ? Describe Cromwell's campaigns 
against the Irish and the Scotch. 24. What did the " Barebones " Parliament do 1 
25. Outline Cromwell's policy. The result ? Describe Cromwell's last days. 



446 HlSTOBY OF THE WORLD. [a.d. 1660-1662 

of very ordinary capacity. The country, weary of tyranny, 
longed for the return of royalty. This was brought about 
by General Monk, commander of the army in Scotland. 
Prince Charles was recalled from exile, and entered Lon- 
don (May, 1660), amid the acclamations of the populace. 



CHAPTER II. 

FIRST WARS AND COMaUESTS OF LOUIS XIV. 
(1661-1068). 

Louis XIV., assisted by able ministers, reforms the administration of France 
and enters upon great wars of conquest, which begin with success but end in 
disaster. 

SECTION I. Personal Government of Louis XIV. 

1. Colbert. — Louis, on assuming personal authority after 
the death of Mazarin, called able ministers to his assistance. 
He dismissed Fouquet, who had managed the finances un- 
der Mazarin and had been guilty of gross peculation. In 
his place he set Colbert, a financier of great ability and 
integrity. Under his administration the internal depart- 
ments of state were speedily reorganized, and France was 
soon restored to a condition of general prosperity. Louis 
took an active interest in European affairs. He began by 
exacting a formal apology from the King of Spain and an- 
other from the pope on questions of etiquette. His suc- 
cess in both astonished Europe. 

2. Louis' Home and Foreign Policy. — While reorganizing 
his army and navy the king encouraged letters and the 
arts. Great public buildings, harbors, and fortifications 
were established in his reign, as also monuments of learn- 

Who succeeded Cromwell ? What led to the recall of Prince Charles ? What 
did Louis XIV. do after the death of Mazarin? Who was selected in place of 
Fouquet ? State the result. "What were Louis' first acts in European affairs ? 



a.d. 1662-1668] Modern History. 44? 

ing and of charity. Eeforms were effected in the law and 
an efficient police established. Charles II. of England was 
made a pensioner of Louis, and the other European states, 
distracted by dissensions, offered an inviting field to his 
ambition. France itself, healed of its divisions, and sud- 
denly become rich and prosperous under the vigorous ad- 
ministration, yielded easily to the absolutism of the king, 
who was truly enabled to assert, "I am the state." 

SECTION II. War of Spoliation (1667). 

3. French Successes. — Louis resolved on securing to France 
the political preponderance acquired by the treaties of West- 
phalia and the Pyrenees. He purchased Dunkirk from the 
English (1662) and converted it into a fortress of great 
strength. He sent troops against the Turks and chased 
the Algerine and Barbary pirates from the Mediterranean. 
On the death of Philip IV. of Spain (1665) Louis laid 
claim to the Spanish Netherlands in behalf of his wife, who 
was Philip's daughter. He invaded Flanders and speedily 
made himself master of the country. 

4. Tlie Triple Alliance. — Europe was aroused and alarm- 
ed. A triple alliance was formed between England, Hol- 
land, and Sweden (1668) to compel France and Spain to 
make peace. Louis responded by invading and taking the 
province of Franche-Comte. The commissioners of the va- 
rious powers met at Aix-la-Chapelle, and a treaty was signed 
(May 2, 1668) which left to France the important territory 
known thenceforth as French Flanders, Franche-Comte be- 
ing restored to Spain. 

SECTION III. Second War of Spoliation (1672-1678). 

5. Invasion of Holland. — Louis attempted by bribery and 

2. Give an account of his home policy. Of his foreign policy. What enahled 
him to assert his absolutism 1 3. Describe the successes which led to the 
Triple Alliance. 4. What was the Triple Alliance ! What did it accomplish ? 



448 History of the World. [a.d. 1670-1679 

corruption to break up the coalition against him. He suc- 
ceeded in great measure. Sweden was bought off and some 
of the German electors. The alliance between England and 
Holland was broken (1670). Louis then entered Lorraine 
and occupied it. Charles II. attacked the Dutch fleet and 
Louis invaded Holland at the head of one hundred thou- 
sand men (1672). With such generals as Turenne, Conde, 
Vauban, and Louvois, the Dutch were easily overcome and 
sued for peace. The conditions demanded by Louis were 
so outrageous that the Dutch rose in revolt and slew the 
Grand Pensionary, De Witt. William, Prince of Orange, 
was elected Stadtholder. He broke off the negotiations, 
and, rather than submit, the Dutch opened their dikes 
and submerged the country from the sea. 

6. The Grand Alliance. — Another coalition was formed 
against the French king under the name of the " Grand 
Alliance of the Hague" (1673). Germany and Spain join- 
ed it, England standing neutral and Sweden joining France. 
Louis was forced to evacuate Holland, but 'took Franche- 
Comte (1674) and left Vauban to guard it. The French 
armies successfully maintained a struggle against the great 
coalition. Turenne found a rival in Montecuculi, the Aus- 
trian general. After a campaign that left the issue doubt- 
ful Turenne forced his adversary into a disadvantageous 
position near Sasbach, but was killed by a stray ball on the 
eve of battle (July 27, 1675). His army was compelled to 
retreat. Montecuculi invaded Alsace, but was stayed by 
Conde and driven across the Ehine. The Dutch now sued 
for peace, which was signed by all the allies at Nymwegen 
(1678-1679). The terms were pretty much as Louis dic- 
tated. 

7. More French Conquests. — Louis' ambition would not 

5. How did Louis seek to break the coalition against him ? Give the chief 
events of the second war of spoliation. On what did the Dutch resolve? 
6. Give an account of the Grand Alliance. "What was the result? 



a. d. 1681-1684] Modern History. 449 

let him rest. He laid preposterous claims to certain Ger- 
man territories, and in 1681 seized the important city 
and fortress of Strassburg, till then a free city. This led 
to another war with Germany and Spain, in which Louis 
gained Luxembourg, which was ceded to him at the treaty 
of Ratisbon (1684). 

SECTION IV. Declaration of 1682 ; Jansenism; Revocation of the Edict 
of Nantes (1685). 

8. Louis and the Church. — Louis assumed to control 
Church affairs as well as lay. This led him into very 
grave disputes with the Holy See and wrought trouble to 
the Church in France. He claimed for the crown the 
right to enjoy the revenues of vacant sees and to dispose 
of benefices all over France. The property of the bishops 
who refused to submit was confiscated, and an assembly of 
French clergy called to limit the exercise of pontifical au- 
thority in France. 

9. Gallicanism. — Less than a third of the bishops of 
France obeyed the royal mandate, the illustrious Bossuet 
among them. He it was who drew up in four articles the 
so-called "Declaration of the Clergy of France on Ecclesi- 
astical Power" (1682). The declaration struck at the su- 
premacy and infallible decision in matters of faith and doc- 
trine of the head of the Church. This was the origin of 
"Gallicanism," which was at once condemned by the pope 
and by many of the French episcopate. Louis attempted 
to awe the pope, but failed. It was only when all Europe 
was leagued against him in his declining years that he re- 
tracted, and wrote to the pope that the declaration would 
no longer be taught or enforced (1693). 

10. Jansenism. — Another dispute with the Holy See 

7. What led to a new war 1 What did Louis gain by it 1 8. In what way did 
Louis interfere with the affairs of the Church 1 9. What was the origin of Gal- 
licanism ? When did Louis retract ? 



450 History of the World. [a.d. 1684-1685 

arose about the doctrines of Jan senilis, Bishop of Ypres, 
whose work on grace contained the principles of Calvin- 
ism, denied the free-will of man and that Christ had died 
for all men. The doctrines were taken up by Arnauld, 
the Abbot of St. Cyran, who gained over his sister Ange- 
lique, the Abbess of Port Eoyal. These got about them a 
number of followers, who, under the name of solitaires, 
lived a retired and ostentatiously mortified life. Their 
number increased and they had partisans at court. Jan- 
senius' doctrines had also penetrated into the Netherlands, 
of which he was a native. 

11. Failure of Jansenism. — In 1642 the doctrines were 
condemned by Pope Urban VIII. The solitaires of Port 
Eoyal were ordered to disperse. A clear form of faith 
was drawn up with the pope's sanction and proposed to 
all the priests and nuns of France. Louis XIV. supported 
the pope. The dispute was renewed at various times and 
with much bitterness of controversy. The Jansenists gra- 
dually lost credit, especially by appeals to pretended mira- 
cles, but the sect, down to the Eevolution, still remained a 
disturbing element in the French Church. In Holland a 
small number of Jansenists steadfastly retained their error 
down to the present time. 

12. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685).— The 
actions of the Calvinists, who were suspected of leaguing 
with the enemies of France, induced Louis to revoke the 
Edict of Nantes (1685). Similar treatment was now met- 
ed out to the Protestants in France as to the Catholics 
in England, Ireland, and other places. The Calvinists re- 
sisted, but were put down by force. A large number left 
the kingdom. 

10. What is meant by Jansenism ? 11. What action was taken by the pope ? 
State what is said of the failure of Jansenism. 12. What induced Louis to re- 
voke the Edict of Nantes ? How were Catholics treated elsewhere ? 



a.d. 1666-1673] Modern History. . 451 

SECTION V. Revolution of 1688 in England ; Charles n. (1660-1685) ; 
James II. (1685-1688); William in. (1689-1702). 

13. Charles II — The restoration of royalty was received 
with rapture by the majority of the English people ; but 
the House of Stuart seemed incapable of learning a lesson 
from the past. Charles II. degenerated into an easy-going 
libertine, who cared more for his pleasures than his peo- 
ple, and sold the honor of his country to France by becom- 
ing a pensioner of the French king. 

14. Struggle for Naval Supremacy. — A struggle for naval 
supremacy between the English and Dutch took place dur- 
ing this reign, in which Kuyter, the Dutch admiral, and 
James, Duke of York, were the rivals. Ruyter at one time 
sailed up the Thames and threatened London. But in the 
end the advantage lay with the English. 

15. Fire and Plague in London. — A dreadful plague deci- 
mated London, and was followed by a fire that nearly de- 
stroyed the city (1666). During these afflictions the king 
showed the nobler side of his character and was seconded 
by his brother. The war which England was carrying on 
with France and Holland was concluded by the treaty of 
Breda (1667), by which New Amsterdam (New York) was 
ceded to the English, Acadia to the French, and the Isle of 
Palawan, in the East Indies, to the Dutch. 

16. The Test Act.— In 1668 the Duke of York became 
a Catholic. This created alarm in England. The king 
avowed his belief in Catholicity. A Catholic succession 
was feared, to prevent which the Test Act was passed 
(1673). This act required all persons holding office to 
take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy, receive the 
English sacrament, and declare against transubstantiation. 
James refused to take it and resigned all his offices. In 

13. How did the restoration affect the policy of the Stuarts ? What of Charles 1 
14. Describe the struggle for naval supremacy. 15. What disasters befell Lon- 
don'? What was settled by the Treaty of Breda? 16. What of the Test Act? 



452 History of the World. [a.d. 1674-1685 

1674 William of Orange married Mary, daughter of James, 
and the leaders in England began to look in that direction 
for the succession. 

17. The Titus Gates Plot. — The public mind was much 
disturbed, and an impostor named Titus Oates seized the 
occasion to create an outcry against the Catholics. He pre- 
tended to have discovered a terrible conspiracy to kill the 
king and place James on the throne. The story was be- 
lieved and Oates thanked and pensioned by Parliament, 
although he was convicted of falsehood in open court. 
Bedloe, another villain, improved upon Oates' story, and 
the public mind was inflamed to such a degree that per- 
secutions of the Catholics broke out and many suffered 
death. A new test was passed by which Catholicity was 
declared to be idolatry. Later on the House of Commons 
passed a bill excluding the Duke of York from the suc- 
cession. He was banished for life, but shortly returned. 

18. The Eye-House Plot. — A conspiracy known as the 
Eye-House Plot was set on foot to secure the succession 
either to the Prince of Orange or to the Duke of Mon- 
mouth. It was discovered and the leaders executed 
(1683). Charles died two years later. On his death-bed 
he received the ministrations of a priest and died in the 
communion of the Catholic Church with sincere sentiments 
of piety and sorrow for his sins (February 6, 1685). The 
Habeas Corpus Act, a great safeguard to the civil liberty 
of the subject, was passed during this reign. 

19. James II. (1685-1688). — James succeeded his brother 
without any opposition. The Duke of Monmouth landed 
and claimed the throne. The Earl of Argyle rose in his 
favor in Scotland. Both were defeated and executed. A 
commission under the presidency of Judge Jeffreys was 

What marriage influenced events ? 17. Give an account of the Titus Oates Plot. 
18. Of the Eye-House Plot. What is said of Charles' death-bed ? What act was 
passed during his reign ? 19. Who succeeded Charles ? 



a.d. 1685-1688] Modern History. 453 

formed to try those who had aided Monmouth. The 
commission, under its harsh chief, was guilty of extreme 
and unwarranted severity. 

20. James and Liberty of Conscience. — The king wished to 
establish liberty of conscience for all his subjects, Catholic 
and Protestant. This sealed his fate. Seven of the bishops 
refused either to accept or maintain such liberty. They 
were imprisoned, sent to trial, and acquitted. For this 
they were regarded by the people as martyrs. 

21. The Revolution (1688). — A conspiracy had been 
hatching among the nobles, and on the day of the bish- 
ops' acquittal Admiral Herbert set sail for Holland with 
a petition to William, Prince of Orange, inviting him to 
England. The petition was signed by the leaders of the 
English aristocracy. Louis XIV. warned James of his 
danger, but James refused to accept the warning. A son 
and heir was born to him in 1688. This quickened the 
movement against him. William landed in England at 
the head of an army of fifteen thousand men (November 
3, 1688). James suddenly found himself wholly deserted 
and was allowed to escape to France, where he was hos- 
pitably received by Louis. 



CHAPTER III. 
IRELAND. 

SECTION I. English Invasion of Ireland. 
1. Internal Dissensions. — Under Henry II. Ireland was, 
in the words of Sir John Davies, Attorney-General for Ire- 
land under James I., "cantonized among ten of the Eng- 
lish nation ; and though they did not gain possession of 

Give an account of Monmouth's rebellion. 20. What struggle arose between 
James and the bishops ? 21. By -whom was William of Orange invited to Eng- 
land 1 State the rise and progress of the rebellion of 1688. 



454 History of the World. [ A .d. 1509-1536 

one-third of the kingdom, yet in title they were owners 
and lords of all." As the Irish did not admit of this 
title, the resnlt was an unending struggle on the part of 
the Irish people for existence, on that of the invaders and 
their descendants for possession. The Irish, hroken up by 
internal dissensions, weakened their own cause against a 
united, disciplined, and merciless foe with a great power 
to back them. 

2. Statutes of Kilkenny. — The descendants of the Anglo- 
Norman invaders soon came to acquire Irish customs and 
habits. To prevent this the Statutes of Kilkenny were 
enacted (1367). These, in brief, forbade the English to 
take up any Irish custom whatever, or have any inter- 
course of friendship or alliance with the natives. 

SECTION II. Ireland and the Tudors (1509-1603). 

3. Henry VIII. — Henry VIII. resolved on establishing 
his spiritual supremacy in Ireland as well as in England. 
At this time only five of the Irish counties were subject 
to English rule. These were confined within what was 
called the Pale. Outside this the Irish chieftains lived in 
a state of actual independence and varied their wars on 
the English by wars upon one another. 

4. Henry's Policy in Ireland. — To effect his supremacy 
Henry adopted within the Pale the same methods as in 
England. The monasteries were suppressed and their pro- 
perty was given to the nobles who were willing to aposta- 
tize. The Irish people remained steadfast in the faith. 

5. A parliament was summoned in Dublin to pass the 
Act of Supremacy (1536). The ecclesiastical representatives 
refused to pass it and were excluded. Henry was then 
declared supreme head of the Church in Ireland. 

1. How were the Irish treated under Henry II. 1 Descrihe the state of affairs 
in Ireland. 2. Why were the Statutes of Kilkenny passed ? 3. On what did 
Henry Till, resolve ? 4. Describe Henry's policy. 



a.d. 1541-1603] Modern History. 455 

6. Henry declared King of Ireland (1541). — St. Leger 
was appointed lord deputy. He bestowed the titles and 
estates of the suppressed monasteries on the Irish chief- 
tains. He induced them to accept English titles, which 
was a practical acknowledgment of allegiance to Henry. 
They consented to sit in the parliament held in Dublin 
(June 12, 1541), which conferred on Henry and his suc- 
cessors the title of Icing in place of lord of Ireland. 

7. Thenceforth began the gradual breaking up of the 
Irish clans. The clansmen repudiated the chieftains who 
had given in their allegiance, and chose others in their 
places. This was the signal for new strife and internal 
dissensions. 

8. Ireland under Elizabeth. — During the reign of Eliza- 
beth a systematic attempt was made to extirpate the Irish 
people and no barbarity was spared that might effect that 
end. Several of the more powerful chieftains defied the 
English government. The most formidable were Shane 
O'Neill, who was assassinated at English instigation ; the 
Earl of Desmond, who, after a long struggle, was defeated 
and beheaded ; and Hugh O'Neill, who first sided with 
the English, but afterwards, in conjunction with his neph- 
ew, Hugh O'Donnell, organized the strongest movement that 
had yet been made in favor of Irish independence. They 
received some assistance from the pope and from Spain, 
but in the end were overcome, O'Neill gaining full pardon 
for himself and his followers. 

SECTION III. Ireland and the Stuarts (1603-1649). 

9. Ireland "planted." — James I., whose accession was 
hailed with joy by the Irish people, continued the system of 
Elizabeth. O'Neill was compelled to fly and the country 

5. Give an account of the Act of Supremacy. 6. By what means was Henry 
declared king of Ireland ? 7. To what did this lead ? 8. Describe the condition 
of Ireland under EJizabeth. What is said of Hugh O'Neill ? 



456 History of the World. [a.d. 1632-1C4G 

was defenceless. James set about "planting" it — that is, 
placing English and Scotch settlers on Irish soil to the ex- 
clusion of the natives. The Irish Catholics raised large 
sums of money for Charles I. in return for certain promises 
or "graces," which he forgot to keep. Wentworth, ap- 
pointed lord-deputy (1632), ruled the land with a rod of 
iron. 

10. Confederation of Kilkenny (1642).— The troubles of 
Charles' reign gave the Irish people another chance. 
Many of the exiled chieftains who had gained experience 
and distinction in foreign wars returned. The Catholics 
rose for the liberty of worship which Charles had promised 
them. The nobles of the Pale and the prelates joined 
in, and a national Confederation was formed at Kilkenny. 
Dissensions soon arose in the Confederation, which had 
tendered its services to the king. Owen Eoe O'Neill 
gained . an important victory over the English at Benburb 
(June 5, 1646), but dissensions among the chieftains pre- 
vented his following it up. 

SECTION IV. Cromwell In Ireland. 

11. Massacres at Drogheda and Wexford. — Cromwell went 
over to subdue the Irish, who still remained faithful to the 
royal cause. His campaign was brief and bloody. The 
massacres, under his orders, at Drogheda and Wexford, as 
well as in other places, are among the most cold-blooded in 
history. Most of the Irish soldiers entered foreign service. 
The people were again left defenceless. The system of 
" plantation " was pursued. Many thousands were shipped 
to the West Indies and there sold as slaves. 

12. Confiscation of all Ireland. — Cromwell was determined 
to extirpate the Irish. All the property of the Irish people 

9. What policy did the Stuarts pursue in Ireland ? 10. Give an account of the 
Confederation of Kilkenny. 11. Describe Cromwell's campaign in Ireland. 12. 
On what did he determine ? » 



a.d. 1653-1689] Modern History. 457 

was declared confiscate to England (September 26, 1653). 
For the Irish nation Connaught, the bleakest portion, was 
set apart, and any Irish person found outside of that pro- 
vince after May 1, 1654, was to suffer death. Most of the 
land was then divided up among Cromwell's followers, and 
the exercise of the Catholic religion was proscribed under 
the severest penalties. 

13. Charles II. and James II. — Matters continued much 
the same under Charles .II. During his reign Oliver 
Plunket, the venerable Archbishop of Armagh, was con- 
veyed to London and there arraigned and executed for 
high treason, his only crime being his faith and high 
office. Under James II. freedom of conscience was re- 
stored, but his reign was too short to admit of any bene- 
fit from it. 

SECTION V. William and Mary (1689-1702). 

14. " Declaration of Right." — On the. accession of William 
and Mary the Parliament obtained royal sanction for the 
"Declaration of Eight," which put a stop to the power of 
the crown to dispense with or suspend laws without the 
consent of Parliament. The Presbyterian form of worship 
was established by law in Scotland. Freedom of worship 
and dispensation from taking the oath of supremacy were 
granted the Dissenters in England. But there was no con- 
cession to the Catholics. 

15. Siege of Derry ; the Boyne. — James, assisted by Louis 
XIV., landed in Ireland (March 22, 1689). Tyrconnell, the 
lord-deputy, met him with an army of forty thousand men. 
Derry and Enniskillen alone held out against him. Derry 
sustained a memorable siege. James frittered away his 
time and opportunities. In August William sent over a 

How was the land divided ? 13. What was the condition of affairs under Charles 
II. and James II. ? 14. What did the English and the Scotch gain by the Decla- 
ration of Eight ? 15. What led to the siege of Deny 1 



458 History of the World. [a.d. 1GD1-1697 

thoroughly equipped force of sixteen thousand men under 
Schoinberg. Next year he followed with thirty-six thou- 
sand men and assumed command. After a stubbornly 
contested battle at the Boyne near Drogheda, in which 
Schomberg was killed, the Irish were defeated. James 
fled before the battle was over, and hastily embarked for 
France, never to return. 

16. Siege and Treaty of Limerick (1691).— The Irish still 
held out. Admiral Tourville gained a great victory over the 
combined English and Dutch fleets off the Isle of Wight. 
Athlone fell (June, 1691), and at Aughrim the Irish sus- 
tained a severe ' defeat, St. Euth, the gallant French com- 
mander, being killed. Limerick alone remained to James, 
and was so stubbornly defended by Sarsfield, Earl of Lucan, 
that an honorable capitulation was allowed the garrison. A 
treaty was drawn up at .Limerick allowing the free exercise 
of their religion and the peaceful enjoyment of their estates 
to the Irish Catholics. Two months after both king and 
Parliament basely violated the treaty. Those who chose 
were allowed to leave the country. About fourteen thou- 
sand left and took service in foreign lands. 

17. Treaty of Eyswiek. — A rising in favor of James in 
Scotland under Viscount Dundee ended in the defeat and 
death of that commander at Killiecrankie (1689). James 
was preparing for another descent on England, but the de- 
feat of the French fleet by the English off Cape La Hogue 
(1692) crushed his hopes, and at the treaty of Eyswiek 
(1697) Louis acknowledged William as King of England. 

Give an account of the battle of the Boyne. What became of James ? 16. De- 
scribe the siege of Limerick. What of the treaty of Limerick ? 17. What took 
place in Scotland in 1689 ? What followed ? 



a.d. 1686-1700] Modern HrsTORr. 459 

CHAPTER IV. 

LOUIS XIV. AFTER THE LEAGUE OF AUGSBURG 
(1688-1715). 

The -war of the League of Augsburg compelled Louis to relinquish part of 
his conquests. A new war secured to him the Spanish succession. 

SECTION I. War of the League of Augsburg (1688-1697). 

1. French Victories. — William of Orange was untiring 
in his efforts to thwart Louis XIV. After the treaty of 
Katisbon he succeeded in uniting Austria, Spain, Bavaria, 
Holland, and Savoy against France. The coalition was 
known as the League of Augsburg (1686). Louis open- 
ed the war by invading the Palatinate (1688), which his 
armies overran. But the great French generals were now 
dead and the French arms felt their loss. Meanwhile 
William of Orange had ascended the throne of England 
and threw that power into the scale of the allies. Not- 
withstanding some severe reverses the military superiority 
of the French was again established by Marshal Luxem- 
bourg, who defeated the allies at Fleurns (1690), Steen- 
kerke (1692), Neerwinden (1693), and in other places. 
The Duke of Savoy was completely defeated by Marshal 
Catinat at Marsiglia. The war lingered till 1697. Both 
sides were exhausted. The wars and immense standing 
armies had drained the treasury of France. Peace was 
signed at Eyswick. By its terms Louis resigned nearly 
all his late conquests. 

SECTION II. War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). 

2. Causes of the War. — Charles II. of Spain, dying with- 
out issue (1700), willed his throne to Louis' grandson, 

1. How did William of Orange thwart Louis ? What did Louis invade 1 What 
new poWer was added to the allies 1 What successes wore gained by the French ? 
What was the effect of the war on France ? 



460 History of the World. [a.d. 1701-1708 

Philip, Duke of Anjou. As this meant the union of the 
Spanish and French crowns, Europe again took alarm, and 
Leopold I., Emperor of Germany, claimed the Spanish 
throne for his second son, the Archduke Charles. Philip 
was crowned at Madrid, and Louis promised him the 
right of succession to the French throne. 

3. Coalition against France. — A coalition was again 
formed against Louis. It was known as the Triple Al- 
liance of England, Holland, and Austria (September 7, 
1701). The Elector of Brandenburg was drawn in by 
promise of the title of King of Prussia. Portugal joined 
later on, and France had no ally save the Elector of Ba- 
varia. Charles was proclaimed king at Vienna (1703). 

4. French Reverses. — The war opened in Italy with re- 
verses for the French, where they were opposed by Prince 
Eugene of Savoy, who had entered the Austrian service. 
Later on the Duke of Vendome retrieved these losses. But 
the Elector of Bavaria suffered a disastrous defeat at Hoch- 
stadt, losing all Bavaria (1704). Two years later all the 
Italian possessions were lost by Prince Eugene's victory at 
Turin. The Netherlands went next, as far as Lille, by 
Marlborough's victory over Villeroi at Eamillies ; and 
finally the dukes of Burgundy and Vend6me were routed 
at Oudenarde (1708). 

5. Battle of Malplaquet. — France was now invaded and 
menaced at all points. The rigorous winter of 1709 de- 
stroyed vegetation, and famine and despair seized upon 
the French. Louis sued for peace. The conditions of the 
allies were so harsh that he spurned them. The struggle 
in Spain, which the Archduke Charles, aided by the Eng- 
lish, had invaded, varied, considerably- in its character. 
The country was divided between Philip and Charles, who 

2. What led to the war of the Spanish succession ? 3. Describe the coalition 
made against France 4. Give an account of the progress of the war. 5. What 
led to the battle of Malplaquet ? 



a.d. 1709-1714] Modern History. . 4G1 

was also proclaimed king. Philip, aided by the skill of 
Marshal Berwick, when in desperate straits succeeded in 
winning a much-needed victory at Almanza (1707). Fur- 
ther victories were followed by reverses ; and the defeat of 
Marshal Villars at Malplaquet (1709) crowned the French 
disasters. Louis was again compelled to sue for peace ; 
and again the conditions were so harsh that he rejected 
them. 

6. Peace of Utrecht (1713). — France rose with its mon- 
arch for a final effort. Vendome was sent into Spain and 
secured the crown to Philip by the decisive victory of 
Villaviciosa (1710). By the death of Leopold the Arch- 
duke Charles had now (1711) become Emperor of Ger- 
many, and consequently lost the assistance of the allies, 
who dreaded the preponderance of the house of Austria 
as much as that of France. Marlborough had fallen into 
disgrace. England had suffered severely from the wars, 
and was anxious to make peace. Prince Eugene was de- 
feated by Villars at Denain (1712). This was followed by 
other victories, and peace was finally signed at Utrecht 
(April 11, 1713) between Holland, England, and France. 
The crown of Spain and the West Indies was secured to 
Philip, the English retaining Gibraltar and the Isle of 
Minorca, which they had captured. Sicily was ceded to 
the Duke of Savoy with the title of king. The Nether- 
lands, Milan, Naples, and Sardinia fell to the house of 
Austria. Acadia, or Nova Scotia, Hudson's Bay, and New- 
foundland were ceded by Louis to England. 

7. Treaty of Eadstadt. — The Emperor Charles VI. alone 
rejected the treaty. But Villars continuing his victories 
against Eugene, Charles thought it prudent to come to 
terms, and in the treaty of Eadstadt confirmed the treaty 

Why did Louis again reject the terms of peace '? 6. What took place in 1710 ? 
In 1711 ? Where was Prmco Eugene defeated ? What were the terms of the 
peace of Utrecht ? 



462 * History of the World. [a.d. 1633-1648 

of Utrecht (1714). Louis died in the following year, leav- 
ing only a great-grandson to succeed him. In his declin- 
ing years he attempted to atone for the scandals of his 
early life. 



CHAPTER V. 
EUROPE IS THE TIME OF LOUIS XIV. 

Europe witnessed three mighty struggles during the reign of Louis 
XIV. : in the west and south between Prance and her neighbors ; in the north 
between Sweden and the other Baltic states ; in the east between Turkey and 
Austria allied with Poland. 

SECTION I. Sweden and the North; Charles XII. (1697-1718). 

1. Q,ueen Christina ; Oxenstiern. — Gustavus Adolphus left 
his crown to his daughter Christina, then only six years 
of age (1632). She was educated by her aunt, the Prin- 
cess Catharine, sister of Gustavus and wife of John Casi- 
mir, the Count Palatine. Catharine's son Charles was be- 
trothed to Christina. She took the reins of government 
in her own hands in 1644, with the able Oxenstiern as 
chief minister. The Swedes were all this time engaged in 
the Thirty Years' War, and, under Oxenstiern's guidance 
and Torstenson's generalship, winning great victories over 
the imperialists. 

2. Abdication of Q,ueen Christina. — Christina did not fa- 
vor the suit of her cousin, who had been betrothed to her 
in her childhood. After the treaty of Westphalia (1648) 
there was time to look into the internal affairs of the 
kingdom. These were found to be in a deplorable con- 
dition resulting from the exhaustive war. Christina, 

7. Who rejected the treaty? By what treaty was that of Utrecht confirmed ? 
What three mighty struggles took place during Louis' reign ? 1. Give an account 
of Queen Christina. Of Oxenstiern. 2. Why did Christina abdicate ? 



a.d. 1654-1700] Modern History. 463 

weary of her position, abdicated in favor of her cousin 
Charles in 1654. 

3. Growing Ascendency of Sweden. — John Casimir, King 
of Poland and son of Sigismund, aspired to the throne of 
Sweden. Charles invaded Poland and overran it in a 
three months' campaign. He compelled the Elector of 
Brandenburg to acknowledge himself a Swedish vassal. 
Casimir renewing the struggle, Charles, with the Elector of 
Brandenburg, again marched into Poland, and, after meet- 
ing with some reverses, gained a final victory after a three 
days' battle near Warsaw (1656). All Europe now grew 
jealous of the growing power of Sweden. Eussia, Austria, 
Denmark, as well as Poland and Brandenburg, declared 
against Charles. But his courage rose above all trials and 
was crowned with success. He died suddenly (February 
13, 1660), and was succeeded by his infant son, Charles 
XI. (1660-1697), whose reign was devoted to arranging 
the internal affairs of the kingdom. 

4. Early Campaigns of Charles XII. — Charles, eldest son 
of Charles XL, succeeded at the age of fifteen. The hos- 
tile powers thought to have an easy victory over this boy 
and formed a league against him. Charles resolved on be- 
ing beforehand with them. By the treaty of the Hague 
he won the assistance of England and Holland, and then 
fell suddenly upon Denmark (1700) and besieged Copen- 
hagen. His impetuosity carried everything before it ; the 
city surrendered almost without a fight, and Frederick IV. 
of Denmark hastened to sign a peace at Travendal by 
which he abandoned the coalition. 

5. Campaigns in Poland and Eussia. — Meanwhile the 
Poles had entered Livonia and the Eussians Ingria. Charles 
turned first against the czar, who was besieging Narva. 

3. Who aspired to the throne ? What action did Charles take ? Describe his 
progress. Who declared against him 1 What occupied the reign of Charles XL ? 
4. Describe the early campaigns of Charles XII. 



4G4 History of the World. [a.d. 1700-1718 

With a force of eight thousand men he fell upon the fifty 
thousand Eussians and totally routed them (November 30, 
1700). He then turned against the Poles and Saxons en- 
trenched on the Duna, and scattered them. He gained 
another great victory at Kliszow (1702), and might have 
made peace on his own terms had he so chosen. But, 
possessed by the passion of war, he went on from cam- 
paign to campaign. He drove Augustus II., the Elector 
of Saxony and King of Poland, from Warsaw, and set 
up Stanislas Leczinski, a young Polish noble, in his place 
(1704). 

6. Battle of Pultowa (1709). — Meanwhile Eussia had 
had time to recruit. Charles invaded that country at the 
head of forty-five thousand men, and was making for Mos- 
cow when he was turned aside by Mazeppa, a Cossack 
chief, with a promise of a rising of his people. Charles 
plunged deeper and deeper into a devastated country, los- 
ing his troops on the way, and wintered at Gadatch, on 
the Dnieper. He purposed attacking Pultowa, a strong 
fortress with abundance of provisions, in the spring 
(1709). But Peter came up with an army of seventy 
thousand men and wholly routed the decimated force of 
Swedes. 

7. Charles XII. in Turkey. — Charles fled for refuge to 
the sultan. He brought on war between Turkey and Eus- 
sia. The grand vizier, at the head of two hundred thou- 
sand men, surrounded the Eussians on the Pruth, and 
Peter's cause seemed lost, when his wife bribed the vizier 
to let him escape. Charles delayed among the Turks till 
1713, hoping to have himself set at the head of their 
armies. 

8. Decline of the Swedes; Death of Charles. — Meanwhile 

5. Give an account of his campaigns in Poland and Eussia. 6. What led to the 
battle of Pultowa ? Give the result. 7. Describe Charles' movements while in 
Turkey. 



a.d. 1462-1689] Modern History. 465 

the Russians and Saxons had things their own way in the 
north and reconquered most of their possessions from the 
Swedes. Stanislas had to fly and joined Charles at Bender. 
Compelled at last to leave Bender, Charles traversed Eu- 
rope in disguise and arrived by night at Stralsund (1714). 
The city was immediately besieged by the allies and obsti- 
nately defended by Charles. Finding it untenable, he re- 
tired to Lund (1715). He was killed while besieging the 
fortress of Frederickshald, in Norway (December 11, 1718) . 
The war was ended by large cessions to the Elector of Han- 
over, the King of Prussia, and the czar. The power of 
Sweden was broken and all danger of her preponderance 
in the north ended. 

SECTION II. Russia: Peter the Great (1682-1725). 

9. Growth of Russian Power. — Eussia was delivered from 
the' Mongols by Ivan III., the Great (1462-1505). He was 
the first to assume the title of Autocrat of all the Russias. 
His son, Ivan IV., the Terrible (1533-1584), completed the 
work of his father, consolidated the power of the throne, 
and added greatly to the Russian dominions. Siberia was 
acquired during his reign. After the death of his son, 
Feodor I. (1584-1598), the throne became an object of 
contention to several aspirants and the country was devas- 
tated by civil war. With Feodor ended the race of Rurik. 
At last, in 1613, the Russians raised Michael Romanoff to 
the throne, and he became the founder of the Romanoff 
dynasty. 

10. Accession of Peter the Great (1689). — His grandson 
Peter, displacing his sister Sophia from the regeney, as- 
cended the throne in 1689. Russia was already one of 
the most powerful nations of northern Europe. But the 

8. What was Sweden suffering in the north 1 H<rw did Charles reach Stral- 
sund ? What followed 1 What was the consequence of his death '? 9. Describe 
the growth of Russia. 10. How did Peter the Great reach the throne ? 



466 History of the World. [a.d. 1690-1725 

Swedes had wrested from it the Baltic coast, and the 
Turks had closed against it the entrance to the Black Sea. 

11. Peter's Home Policy. — The nation was still semi- 
barbaric and Peter resolved on civilizing it. He brought 
intelligent men from abroad to instruct his people, and 
travelled abroad himself to learn the arts and see the 
civilization of other nations. His reforms, though harshly 
enforced, were effectual. His iron will put down all op- 
position. He broke the power of the nobles and estab- 
lished an absolute form of government, making himself 
the head of the church as well as of the state (1721). 

12. Peter's Acquisitions. — In 1703 he built a city named 
after himself, St. Petersburg, and made it his capital. 
He conquered Charles XII., and by his acquisitions from 
Sweden not only greatly enlarged his own borders on the 
north, but strengthened them. He also defeated the Per- 
sians, from whom he wrested important territories on the 
Caspian (1723). 

13. Death of Peter. — He reorganized his army on the 
German plan and built a fleet. Eeturning* from France 
(1717), he found that his son and heir, Alexis, was impli- 
cated in a revolt against his authority. The prince was 
tried, condemned to death, and a few days after found 
dead in prison. Eemorse for the deed probably hastened 
the death of the father, who died in 1725, leaving the 
throne to the Empress Catharine. 

SECTION in. Humiliation of Turkey. 

14. Turkish Reverses. — After the battle of Lepanto the 
Turkish power rapidly declined. Selim II. was succeeded 
by sultans weaker and more effeminate even than himself. 
Their enervating example had an evil effect on the whole 

How had Eussia been crippled? 11. Outline Peter's home policy. 12. What 
city did he build? What territory did he acquire ? 13. Mention other deeds of 
Peter. What of his death ? 14. What hastened the decline of Turkey ? . 



a.d. 1660-1683] Modern History. 467 

people. Nevertheless attempts were made to extend the 
Turkish power along the Danube and the Mediterranean. 
Hungary suffered from various invasions, and there were 
frequent wars between the Turks and Poland, Austria, 
Venice, and Russia ; but the power of the Turks was on 
the wane. 

15. Meanwhile there had been war with Austria since 
1660, and the Turks overran Hungary. Germany, France, 
and Italy formed a coalition against them, and Montecu- 
culi gained a great victory over them at St. Gothard, on 
the Eaab (August 1, 1664). This was followed by the 
peace of Temesvar. 

16. Sobieski and the Turks. — In 1672 the sultan invaded 
Poland. John Sobieski, afterwards king, was then in com- 
mand of the Polish armies. The king, Michael Korybut, 
concluded a disgraceful peace at Kamenetz. Sobieski 
caused the senate to reject it, and attacked and completely 
defeated the Turks at Khotin (1673). The king dying soon 
after, Sobieski was chosen to succeed him. Peace was 
made with the Turks in 1676. 

17. Second Siege of Vienna (1683). — The dissensions and 
disturbances in Germany offered the Turks an opportunity 
in that direction, and war was declared (1682). In the fol- 
lowing summer Kara Mustafa, the grand vizier, marched 
on Vienna at the head of three hundred thousand men. 
The Emperor Leopold fled to Linz, and the city was left to 
its own resources with the heroic Stahremberg for leader. 
The Turks invested it, and Vienna was reduced to the last 
extremity, when Sobieski, having formed a junction with 
Charles of Lorraine and a body of German troops, came to 
its relief. The Turks were routed with terrible loss (Sep- 
tember 12, 1683). 

What attempts were made to extend Turkish power? 15 What events 
brought about the peace of Temesvar ? 16. Give an account of Sobieski's strug- 
gle with the Turks. 17. What led to the second siege of Vienna ? Give the result, 



468 History of the World. [a.d. 1687-1699 

18. The Turkish Power broken. — Thenceforth disaster af- 
ter disaster fell upon the Turks. They lost province after 
province. At Mohacs (August 12, 1687) Charles of Lor- 
raine again routed them with great slaughter. Prince Eu- 
gene beat them on the Danube, and they were compelled 
to sign a peace at Carlovitz (1699), by which Mustapha II. 
ceded most of his Hungarian possessions to Austria and 
made other concessions to other powers. Thenceforth 
Turkey never raised her head against Europe, though she 
had contests with single powers, chiefly with Eussia and 
the insurgent peoples subject to her sway. 

18. What took place at Mohacs ? What befell the Turks on the Danube ? By 
what was this defeat followed? State what is said of the further connection of 
Turkey with European affairs. 



FOURTH EPOCH. 

FKOH THE ACCESSION OF LOUIS XT. TO THE FRENCH EETO- 
LUTION (1715-1789). 

The fourth epoch, or eighteenth century, comprises the reigns of Louis 
XT. and Louis XVI. in France, and ends with the French Revolution. 



CHAPTER I. 
LOUIS XV. (1715-1774). 

The reign of Louis XT., during the regency and ministry of the Duke de 
Bourbon, shows a violent reaction against the absolutism of Louis XIY. 
Later on the Seven Years' "War ruins the French colonies. The spirit of in- 
fidelity makes rapid progress. 

SECTION I. The Regency (1715-1723) and Ministry of the Duke de 
Bourbon (1723-1726). 

1. Orleans Regency. — After the death of Louis XIV. 
there came in. France a reaction against the profitless wars 
that had drained the country, as well as against the ab- 
solutism which could make war at its will. During the 
minority of the young king his cousin, the Duke of Or- 
leans, was regent. He attained to popularity by restor- 
ing some of the privileges of the parliament which Louis 
XIV. had taken away. 

2. Law and the Mississippi Scheme. — The regent set to 
work to restore the finances, and was captivated by the 
scheme of a Scotch adventurer named John Law. Law 
established a West India Company, better known as the 

1. What reaction set in during the Orleans regency? How did the Duke of 
Orleans attain popularity? 2. What did the regent endeavor to do with the 
finances ? What scheme captivated him ? 



470 History of the World. [a.d. 1720-1726 

" Mississippi Bubble," with a view to colonizing the French 
possessions in America and drawing a revenue from them. 
An enormous number of shares were issued and Law was 
made comptroller-general of the finances. The bubble 
burst and France was plunged into deeper financial em- 
barrassment than before. 

3. War with Spain. — The regent was drawn into a war 
with Spain, whose minister at the time was the able Car- 
dinal Alberoni. The cardinal's schemes were defeated by 
the formation of an alliance of England, Germany, Hol- 
land, and France against Spain, which resulted in the 
dismissal of Alberoni. 

4. Public Discontent. — The Duke of Orleans died in 
1723, and was succeeded in the ministry by the Duke 
de Bourbon, great-grandson of the great Conde. The 
French court under both regents was very corrupt. Its 
scandals disgusted the people, while the onerous taxes 
raised to fill the depleted treasury and pockets of those 
in power exasperated them. In 1725 the king married 
Maria Leczinski, daughter of Stanislas of Poland, who, on 
the defeat of Charles XII., had lost his throne, which was 
restored to Augustus. She was a virtuous and amiable 
woman. The marriage was brought about by the Duke 
de Bourbon, despite the fact that Louis had already been 
affianced to the daughter of Philip V. of Spain. Philip's 
anger caused the dismissal of the duke and instalment of 
Cardinal Fleury, former tutor to the king, in his place 
(1726). 

SECTION II. Ministry of Cardinal Fleury (1726-1743). 

5. The Cardinal's Policy. — Cardinal Fleury endeavored, 
and with much success, to keep the peace and restore the 

Give an account of the Mississippi Bubble. 3. How were Cardinal Alberoni's 
plans ruined? 4, By whom was the regent succeeded? What was the state of 
affairs under the regents ? What led to the ministry of Cardinal Fleury 1 



a.d. 1726-1733] Modern History. 471 

disordered finances. He prevented the coalition of Philip 
V. and Charles VI. of Germany against France by get- 
ting them to quarrel oyer the duchies of Parma and Pia- 
cenza, left vacant by the death of the last of the Far- 
neses. Elizabeth Farnese, Queen of Spain, his niece, was 
left as his sole heir. Her eldest son, Don Carlos, was 
proclaimed as his successor, Fleury supported the claim 
against Charles VI., who claimed it for himself. 

6. The Pragmatic Sanction. — Charles had lost his only 
son. In order to secure the succession of the throne of 
Austria to his family he issued the " Pragmatic Sanction." 
This ensured the succession in the female line, and his 
daughter, Maria Theresa, was appointed heir. France, Ba- 
varia, and Saxony refused to recognize the change. Eng- 
land, France, Denmark, and Holland leagued against him. 
He secured the aid of Spain by surrendering his claims to 
the disputed duchies, and that of Prussia and Eussia by 
large grants of territory. At the intervention of the pope 
a general agreement was arrived at in Vienna (March 16, 
1731), by which all the powers accepted the Pragmatic 
Sanction at the cost of further sacrifices on the part of 
the emperor. One of his promises was to secure the 
succession of the throne of Poland and Saxony to the son 
of Augustus II. 

7. War for the Polish Succession. — Augustus died in 
1733, and the Poles chose Stanislas Leczinski to succeed 
him. Charles, with slight support from Eussia, declared 
for Augustus III. France, Spain, and Sardinia supported 
his rival, and a new war of succession broke out. A French 
army entered Italy, possessed itself of Milan and nearly all 
Lombardy, as well as Lorraine. The Spaniards occupied 
Naples and Sicily. Charles, beaten on all sides, was com- 

5. What was the cardinal's policy ? How did he prevent a coalition against 
France? 6. What was the " Pragmatic Sanction " '? How was it received ? What 
led to its acceptance ? 7. Outline the war for the Polish succession. 



472 History of the World. [a.d. 1735-1741 

pelled to sue for peace. It was signed at Vienna. Au- 
gustus III. was acknowledged King of Poland. Lorraine 
was given to Stanislas, after whose death it was to re- 
vert to France. France retained her Italian conquests, 
and Spain hers (1735). In the following year Charles de- 
clared war against the Turks and was equally unsuccess- 
ful. Peace was signed at Belgrade (September 18, 1739). 
Charles died in 1740, leaving to his daughter a greatly 
diminished and disorganized empire, but one still of vast 
extension. 

8. War for the Austrian Succession (1740). — Immediate- 
ly on the death of Charles the electors of Saxony and 
Bavaria and the kings of Prussia, Spain, and Sardinia re- 
pudiated the Pragmatic Sanction which they had signed at 
Vienna, and disputed Maria Theresa's right to the throne, 
each claiming some portion of her territories for himself. 
Maria, who had been married to Francis I., Duke of Lor- 
raine and Tuscany, was a woman of great ability and cour- 
age. She entered Vienna and received the homage of her 
Austrian states. 

9. Maria Theresa and Frederick of Prussia. — The young 
empress saw none but enemies around her. Frederick II. 
had just ascended the throne of Prussia. Resolved on en- 
larging his dominions, he invaded and occupied Lower Si- 
lesia. Charles Albert, the Elector of Bavaria, took Prague, 
and caused himself to be elected emperor at Frankfort, with 
the title of Charles VII. Aided by France, he threatened 
Vienna and the empress was compelled to fly. 

10. Maria Theresa and the Hungarians. — Maria fled to 
Hungary and convoked the diet at Presburg (1741). "With 
her infant son in her arms she appeared before the assem- 
bled nobles. Her beauty and misfortunes won their hearts 

How was peace secured? What was the state of the empire when Charles 
died ? 8. Who repudiated the Pragmatic Sanction ? What is said of Maria The- 
resa? 9. Name the enemies that surrounded her. 10. What step did she take ? 



a.d. 1743-1748] Modern History, 473 

and all swore to die for their "king," Maria Theresa. 
George II. of England proved also a faithful ally. The 
French and Bavarians were routed and driven out. Fred- 
erick made peace (1742), retaining Silesia. Charles lost 
Bohemia, and the Austrian successes induced Frederick 
to resume the offensive. 

11. Battle of Dettingen. — Cardinal Fleury died in 1743, 
and Louis, who was now thirty-four, resolved on taking su- 
preme control of affairs in France. Making an alliance 
with Frederick, they declared war against England, the 
ally of Austria, with whom Holland and Sardinia now 
sided. The French were defeated by the English and 
Hanoverians under G-eorge II. near Dettingen (1743). 
Charles VII. dying, his son became an ally of Maria The- 
resa and supported the election of Francis to the imperial 
throne (1745). 

12. Defeats of the Imperialists. — Marshal Saxe, who 
commanded under Louis XV., won various victories in 
the Netherlands, the most celebrated of which was at 
Fontenoy, where the heroism of the Irish Brigade under 
Lord Clare turned defeat into a great victory (1745). 
Other victories followed. Frederick of Prussia, on his 
side, was also winning important successes. He took 
Dresden in 1745, and, seeing Maria Theresa powerless, 
made peace, acknowledging Francis as emperor, and be- 
ing himself confirmed in possession of Silesia (Decem- 
ber 25, 1745). By his conquests he had already doubled 
the number of his subjects, and now held the balance 
of power in Germany. Prussia enjoyed peace for the 
eleven ensuing years. 

13. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748).— Meanwhile the 
French pursued their campaigns and victories, while the 

What successes crowned her efforts ? 11. What new alliance was made 1 Where 
were the Trench defeated 1 What followed the death of Charles VTI. ? 12. Re- 
count the defeats of the imperialists. What had Frederick gained for Prussia? 



474 History of the World. [a.d. 1565-1609 

English were victorious oyer the allies on the seas. Aus- 
tria was victorious in Italy. Elizabeth of Eussia now 
came to the assistance of Maria Theresa, and peace was 
brought about at Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). Parma, Pia- 
cenza, and G-uastalla were ceded to Philip, the Spanish 
infanta, and part of the duchy of Milan to Sardinia. 
Erance and England interchanged their conquests, both 
countries being exhausted by the war. Maria, under the 
direction of her able minister, Kaunitz, turned her atten- 
tion to internal affairs. She reformed the administra- 
tion, relieved the lot of the peasant class, abolished tor- 
ture, encouraged education, and in every respect showed 
herself a mild and enlightened sovereign. But the mu- 
tual jealousies of the powers did not long allow this hap- 
py state of things to continue. 

SECTION III. The American Colonies. 

14. The Spanish Colonies. — The colonies of the European 
powers on the American continent were draAvn into the 
contests in Europe. The Spaniards had explored and con- 
quered the coast-line in South America, with the exception 
of Brazil, which belonged to Portugal. They established 
colonies and sent out missionaries to convert the natives. 
In 1565 they established the first permanent settlement in 
what are now the United States at St. Augustine, Florida. 

15. The French Colonies. — While the Spaniards were in 
the South the French turned to the North. In 1535 
Jacques Cartier ascended the St. Lawrence as far as where 
Montreal now stands. In 1605 Samuel Champlain estab- 
lished the colony of Port Eoyal, in Acadia {Nova Scotia). 
In 1610 this was made a central station for Jesuit mis- 
sions among the Indian tribes. In 1609 Champlain ex- 

13. How was peace brought about? What were the main features of the treaty 
of Aix-la-Chapelle? What reforms were made by Maria? 14. What had the 
Spaniards accomplished in America ? 15. What is said of the French colonies ? 



a.d. 1584] Modern History. 475 

plored part of New York and discovered the lake that 
bears his name. In 1646 Father Isaac Jogues discovered the 
Lake of the Holy Sacrament (now Lake George). Father 
Marquette, in the course of his missions, sailed down the 
Mississippi and made great discoveries. He was followed 
by La Salle, who explored the river to the Gulf of Mex- 
ico. On the strength of these discoveries the French es- 
tablished their claims to the West. 

16. The English Colonies. — The English claimed the 
northern part of the continent by right of Cabot's discov- 
ery in the reign of Henry VII. Sir Humphrey Gilbert 
and Sir Walter Ealeigh obtained a charter from Queen 
Elizabeth for the discovery and occupation of all lands ly- 
ing between Florida and New France. In 1584 Ealeigh 
discovered and named Virginia after the queen. In the 
reign of James I. a systematic attempt at colonization was 
made by wealthy citizens of London, Bristol, and Plymouth, 
who formed the Plymouth and London Companies under 
favor of the crown. All the territory from Cape Fear 
to the Bay of Fundy, bordering on the Spanish possessions 
at one extremity and the French at the other, was given 
to the companies. 

17. Colonial Rivalries. — The antagonisms of the home 
governments, as well as their own jealousies, soon brought 
the colonists into contention. The Spaniards confined them- 
selves to the South, but, in virtue of being first discoverers, 
claimed all the continent north of them. They called their 
dependencies New Spain, including Mexico and the adjoin- 
ing territory. The rest of the southern continent they 
called Florida. The French held Canada and part of the 
Northern States, claiming everything south of them. Their 
possessions they called New France. The English claimed 

Name two French explorers. Two Jesuits. 16. Mention the earliest attempts 
at settlement made by the English. What was allotted to the companies ? 17. 
What brought the various colonies into conflict ? State their claims. 



476 • History of the World. [a.d. 1609-1655 

all the country from New England and Carolina westward 
to the Pacific, the whole territory being called Virginia. 

18. Dutch Colonies. — In 1609 Henry Hudson, an Eng- 
lishman in the service of the Dutch East India Company, 
discovered the river called after him and sailed up it as 
far as Albany. Thus the Dutch claimed the coast from 
New Jersey to the Bay of Fundy and named the territory 
New Netherland. In 1613 they built a fort on Manhat- 
tan Island, now New York City, and in 1614 established 
a permanent settlement at Fort Nassau, near Albany. 

19. Hew York; Landing of the Puritans. — In the reign 
of Charles II. New Netherland came into possession of the 
English, and the name of New York was given to the 
town and province in honor of James, Duke of York, bro- 
ther of the king, on whom Charles bestowed the whole 
territory from the Connecticut to the Delaware. The Eng- 
lish were established in possession at the close of the war 
between England and Holland during the same reign. In 
the preceding reign (1620) the first Puritan colony landed 
from the Mayflower on the Massachusetts coast and found- 
ed the town of New Plymouth. 

20.1 Puritan Intolerance. — The religious troubles of the 
Old World were brought into the New. The only English 
colony that professed and practised toleration in matters 
of religion in the seventeenth century was the Catholic 
colony of Maryland, founded by Lord Baltimore, a Catho- 
lic, in 1634. The Puritans obtained possession of its gov- 
ernment in 1655, and at once reversed the order of things. 
The Catholic religion was proscribed and Catholics were ex- 
cluded from office. During the reign of William and Mary 
Maryland was made a royal province, the Anglican form 
of faith was established, and Catholics were disfranchised. 

18. On what did the Dutch base their claim 1 ? What settlements were made by 
them ? 19. How did the English acquire New York ? Where had the first Eng- 
lish colony been founded ? 20. Tell of the Puritans. Of Maryland. 



a.d. 1663-1745] Modern History. 477 

21. The Colonies and the Crown. — Carolina, claimed by 
English and Spaniards, was erected into a province by 
Charles II. (1663). In 1681 Pennsylvania was settled by a 
colony of Quakers under William Penn. In 1685 trouble 
arose between the colonies and the crown in consequence 
of James II. demanding a surrender of their charters. Af- 
ter the expulsion of James the charters were renewed and 
religious toleration for all save Catholics was proclaimed. 

22. The Colonies take part in the European Wars. — The 
English were enclosed by a line of French colonies and 
outposts. This brought the colonists into collision. The 
colonies took part in the wars during the reign of Louis 
XIV. The treaty between France and England in 1697 
put an end to the conflict. 

23. Cession of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. — In 1702 
the colonists again took part in the home troubles, and, the 
Spaniards being allied to the French, the English were 
hemmed in on all sides. With the treaty of Utrecht (1713) 
came peace and the cession of Newfoundland and Acadia 
to England. Acadia was thenceforth named Nova Scotia. 
During these conflicts the Jesuit missions among the In- 
dians suffered severely. 

24. Colonial Prosperity. — In the intervals of peace the 
English colonies prospered and increased in population. 
The French did a great trading business and resolved on 
building up a Western power. After being expelled from 
Acadia they built a strong fortress at Louisburg, in the 
mouth of the St. Lawrence. In the war between George 
II. and Louis XV. this was captured by the English colo- 
nists (1745), but was restored to the French by the treaty 
of Aix-la-Chapelle. 

21. Give an account of the Pennsylvania colony. 22. Why did the colonies 
take part in the European "wars ? 23. What led to the cession of Newfoundland 
and Acadia ? 24. On what did the French resolve after the loss of Acadia ? 



478 History of the World. [a.d. 1702-1715 

SECTION IV. England: Queen Anne (1702-1714); the House of Han- 
over. 

25. M'ary, wife of William III., died in 1694, and was 
followed by her husband in 1702. During William's reign 
a standing army was for the first time established in Eng- 
land by Act of Parliament. In 1693 the Bank of England 
was founded by English capitalists. 

26. Union of Scotland with England. — William was suc- 
ceeded by Anne, second daughter of James II. and wife of 
Prince George of Denmark (1702). It was during her 
reign that the Duke of Marlborough gained great renown 
for the British arms. In 1707 the Act of Union between 
England and Scotland was passed. The Scotch law and 
administration of justice remained unchanged, but the two 
nations were henceforth to be governed under one legisla- 
ture, the Scotch to be represented in the English Parlia- 
ment. The countries were known as Great Britain. Anne's 
reign was also remarkable for its literary brilliancy, and 
has been called the Augustan era of English literature. 

27. Accession of the House of Hanover. — Prince George 
died in 1708 ; the queen died six years later. All her 
children died before her, and, the Protestant succession 
having been fixed, the crown of England passed to the 
Hanoverian descendants of James I. George, the Elector 
of Hanover, was invited over (1714) and took peaceable 
possession of the throne. In the following year the grand- 
son of James II. landed in Scotland, where a rising was ef- 
fected in his favor, but was crushed at Preston (1715). 
There was great strife of parties during the reign and 
much intrigue in and about the court. A speculation 
known as the "South-Sea Bubble"' was set up and burst, 
causing great financial disaster in England. 

25. When did William III. die t What were established during his reign? 26. 
Who succeeded William ? What act was passed in 1707 ? Tor what was Anne's 
reign remarkable ? 27. What led to the accession of the house of Hanover? 



a.d. 1727-1757] Modern History. 479 

28. George II (1727-1760).— George I. died in 1727 and 
was succeeded by his son, George II. He took a very 
active part in foreign affairs and proved a steadfast ally 
to Maria Theresa. The bitter strife of parties continued 
in England during all his reign. Charles Edward, "the 
Young Pretender," grandson of James II., landed in Scot- 
land and raised a new revolt, which at first proved suc- 
cessful and at one time threatened the throne. George II. 
was making preparations for flight when the defeat of 
the young prince at Culloden (April 16, 1746) put an end 
to the rising and to the hopes of the Stuarts. 

29. Braddoek's Defeat. — The European wars led to trou- 
bles in the American colonies, and General Braddock was 
sent out with a couple of regiments to organize an army 
for the protection of the English colonies against the 
Erench. He was defeated and slain near Fort Du 
Quesne (now Pittsburgh) on July 9, 1755, and the rem- 
nants of his force were only saved by the skill and cool- 
ness of George Washington, a young Virginian serving 
with Eraddock's command. 

30. War with France. — In the following year England 
declared war against France. General Abercrombie, with 
several regiments, was sent to America, and the Marquis 
of Montcalm was despatched to take command of the 
French. The struggle also extended to the East Indies, 
where the French and English were rivals. The success 
at first lay with the French. 

31. Pitt's Ministry ; Conquest of Canada.— In 1757 Wil- 
liam Pitt became prime minister. Pitt at once assumed 
a vigorous foreign policy, recalled Loudon, the incom- 
petent commander-in-chief, from America, and gave the 
command to Abercrombie, sending twelve thousand troops 

28. Outline the reign of George II. What ended the hopes of the Stuarts? 
29. Give an account of Braddoek's defeat. 30. What generals were sent to 
America 1 31, Who became prime minister of England 1 



480 History of the World. [a.d. 1758-1760 

and a powerful fleet to his aid. The fortress of Louis- 
burg was captured (July 27, 1758), and other important 
victories soon followed. These were crowned by the cap- 
ture of Quebec (1759), where Wolfe and Montcalm, the 
opposing generals, both fell. Montreal surrendered soon 
after, and the whole of Canada was in the hands of the 
English. This ended the war in the American colonies, 
in which the colonists themselves bore a very active and 
important part. 

32. English Success in India. — In India also the English 
were equally successful. The French gave scant support 
to their colonists, and their possessions soon changed 
hands. Clive laid the foundations of English power in 
India, and by the great victory of Plassey (1757) estab- 
lished England's supremacy. The defeat of the French 
fleet by Admiral Hawke off Quiberon established her su- 
premacy at sea. In a war with Spain English privateers 
reaped a rich harvest from the seas. In the midst of all 
these triumphs George II. died suddenly (October 25, 
17G0). A conflict between the crown and the Irish Parlia- 
ment begun during his reign led eventually to the Act of 
Union between England and Ireland. 

SECTION V. Tlie Seven Years' War (1756-1763). 

33. Coalition against Prussia. — The jealousies of the 
European powers soon created a rupture of the general 
peace, and a Seven Years' War was the result. Austria 
won over France, her enemy for three centuries, and, with 
Sweden, Poland, and Eussia, combined against Prussia 
(1755). Prussia found an ally in England ; Spain, Hol- 
land, and Sardinia remaining neutral. 

34. Frederick of Prussia in Saxony. — Frederick began 

What steps were taken against the French? Give the result of the war. 

32. What took place in India 1 On the ocean? What led to the Act of Union ? 

33. What caused the Seven Tears' War f How were the various nations allied ? 



a.d. 1756-1762] Modern History. 481 

by invading Saxony. He defeated the Austrians at Low- 
ositz (1756), and the Saxon army surrendered soon after. 
Saxony was in his hands and turned against the allies. 
He gained another victory at Prague (1757), but with the 
loss of twelve thousand men. Defeated at Kolin, he was 
driven from Bohemia, and the armies of the allies, pour- 
ing in, threatened his capital. 

35. Frederick's Victories. — Dissensions among the allies 
gave Frederick courage, and he gained a great victory over 
the French at Eossbach (November 5, 1757). This was 
followed by a victory over the Austrians at Leuthen (De- 
cember 5, 1757), and a still bloodier one over the Rus- 
sians at Zorndorf (August 25, 1758). Meanwhile the 
French had beaten his English allies in various engage- 
ments, and Marshal Richelieu compelled the Duke of 
Cumberland to capitulate at Closterseven. 

36. Prussian Reverses. — After beating the Russians and 
driving them from Prussia Frederick entered Saxony. 
The tide of victory now turned against him. He suffer- 
ed a terrible surprise from the Austrian general, Daun, 
at Hochkirchen (October, 1758). In the following year he 
was beaten again at Kunnersdorf, with a loss of two-thirds 
of his army. The Austrians took Dresden and the Rus- 
sians entered Berlin. 

37. Peace of Paris (1763). — Again did Frederick rally 
his people, and in 1760 he won the battles of Liegnitz 
and Torgau. Reverses followed, but in 1762 Elizabeth 
of Russia, the strong ally of Maria Theresa, died and 
was succeeded by Peter III., who withdrew from the co- 
alition. Frederick gained new victories over the Austri- 
ans, and the French withdrew their armies, declaring neu- 
trality. All were now anxious for peace. France had 

34. Describe Frederick's movements. What followed his defeat at Kolin? 

35. What encouraged Frederick? Tell of his victories. What of the English? 

36. Give an account of the Prussian reverses. 37. What followed ? 



482 History of the World. [a.d. 1763-1764 

lost her colonies to the English, and Austria and Prus- 
sia were exhausted. Peace was signed at Paris (February 
10, 1763) between England, France, and Spain, which 
had been dragged into the war towards its close. 

38. Close of the Seven Years' War. — Five days later 
Prussia and Austria came to terms at Hubertsburg. 
Frederick was allowed to retain Silesia. Canada and 
other French possessions in North America fell to Eng- 
land, and she retained her conquests in India. Spain 
ceded Florida to her in return for conquests surrender- 
ed by the English. As a last humiliation Louis XV. was 
compelled to dismantle Dunkirk on the sea side. 

39. The Duke de Choiseul was chief minister of France 
at this time. By the death of Stanislas Leczinski (1761) 
Lorraine reverted to France, and the island of Corsica 
fell to it in 1768. In the following year Napoleon Bona- 
parte was born in Ajaccio (August 15, 1769). 

40. Decline of the Royal Authority in France. — Louis 
XV. belied the promise of his youth. Giving himself up 
to vice, his example set the fashion in France. The par- 
liaments waxed bolder against their effeminate king. So- 
ciety became corrupt. Jansenism, combined with a grow- 
ing disbelief, had infected the higher classes in Church 
as well as state. The favorite writings of the day in 
France were assaults on religion and Christian belief. 
The chief opponents of the gathering infidelity were the 
members of the Company of Jesus. It was resolved to 
suppress them, and the enmity of Madame cle Pompa- 
dour, the favorite of the king, helped on the suppression. 

41. Suppression of the Jesuits in France (1764). — On 
August 6, 1762, a decree was issued in France declaring 
the Society of Jesus to be "inadmissible in any civilized 

When was peace signed ? 38. What were the terms of the peace 1 How was 
Louis XV. humiliated 1 39. Mention some notable events of this decade. 40. 
How was royal authority in France weakened ? What was the state of religion ? 



a.d. 1764-1774] - Modern History. 483 

state, because contrary to natural law and dangerous 
to spiritual and temporal authority." Clioiseul was their 
enemy as well as Pompadour, and the suppression re- 
ceived the king's sanction in 1764. Louis wept as he 
signed the decree. In the following year the Dauphin 
died. 

42. Causes of Discontent. — The disputes between Louis 
and his parliaments increased in bitterness. The long 
wars had emptied the treasury and the taxes were in- 
creased. The taxes fell upon the poor and middle 
classes, the nobles being exempt. This deepened the 
growing dissatisfaction with a scandalous and corrupt 
government which had brought nothing but loss and hu- 
miliation to France. Louis died in time to escape the 
storm that was impending (1774). 

43. The Secret Societies. — The nations were weary and 
exhausted by the long wars. A feeling of resentment 
was springing up on all sides against the rulers and the 
governments that caused such bloodshed and oppression. 
Secret societies were formed which had for their object 
the overthrow of the existing order of things. They were 
known under the general name of Freemasons, and had 
an avowed hatred to Christianity. The Protestant Eefor- 
mation, by shaking the unity of faith, gradually led many 
who accepted its doctrines to throw aside all faith. The 
lettered classes lapsed into practical infidelity, and the 
lower classes were much neglected and oppressed. 

44. Voltaire and Kousseau. — Francois Arouet, better 
known as Voltaire, devoted all the powers of a brilliant 
intellect to assaults on Christianity. During a sojourn 
in England he became indoctrinated with the writings of 
Locke and Hume, who gave the first English expression 

41. What decree was issued against the Jesuits? What happened in the fol- 
lowing year ? 42. What were causes of discontent in France ? When did the 
king die ? 43, What societies arose about this time ? What of Protestantism ? 



484 History of the World. [a.d. 1765-1770 

to the growing unbelief. He was aided by Jean Jacques 
Rousseau (1712-1778), a Genevese, who attacked society 
as Voltaire attacked the Church. These two men gave 
its intellectual form to the coming revolution that was to 
overthrow both Church and state. 



CHAPTER II. 
THE TWO REVOLUTIONS. 

Its 1775 the English colonies in America revolted against the government of 
Great Britain. They won their independence in 1783. In 1789 the French peo- 
ple overthrew the government in France, and, after ten years of wild excesses, 
yielded to the power of Napoleon Bonaparte. 

SECTION I. The American Revolution (1775-1783). 

1. Causes of the Revolution. — During the Seven Years' 
War the American colonists of England had expended six- 
teen million dollars and lost thirty thousand men. Eng- 
land refunded only five millions, and in addition sought to 
ruin the colonial industry in favor of the home market. 

2. English Oppression. — There were now thirteen Ameri- 
can colonies, with a population of about two millions, three 
hundred and fifty thousand of whom were negro slaves. 
The colonists were indignant at the restrictive and oppres- 
sive measures of a government for which they had made 
such generous sacrifices. But all their petitions for redress 
of grievances were met with contempt. Odious acts were 
passed that at last drove the people into revolt. 

3. Beginning of the Revolt. — The colonists were forbid- 
den to trade with any country but England. They retorted 
by refusing to take English goods. The first outbreak oc- 

44. What is said of Yoltaire % Of Rousseau ? What was the effect of their 
writings 1 1. What had the Seven Years' War cost the American colonies ? 2. 
What treatment did they receive from England ? 3. How did the revolt begin ? 



a.d. 1773-1775] Modern History. 435 

curred in Boston harbor (1773). Three ships laden with 
tea arrived. The citizens refused to take the tea. Gov- 
ernor Hutchinson insisted that they should. The matter 
was settled by a band of citizens who boarded the vessels 
and threw the tea into the water (December 16, 1773). 
Boston was closed to all ships by act of Parliament, and 
the privileges granted in the charter of Massachusetts were 
withdrawn. Troops were quartered on the colonists at 
their expense. The people were ripe for revolt. 

4. Declaration of Rights (1774). — An assembly of dele- 
gates, representing all the colonies save Georgia, met in 
Philadelphia (September 5, 1774). A Declaration of Colo- 
nial Rights was drawn up. It set forth the people's claim 
to a share in making their own laws and imposing their 
own taxes. It denied the right of the crown to send accus- 
ed persons to England for trial, to maintain a standing 
army among the colonists without their consent, or to 
forbid peaceable public meetings to be held. 

5. Lexington (1775). — Massachusetts was still bolder in 
its expression of resistance. A Provincial Congress under 
the presidency of John Hancock assembled, called out 
troops, and collected military supplies. General Gage sent 
his soldiers to destroy the arms and ammunition which 
the colonists had stored at Concord. They were met at 
Lexington by a small party of armed colonists, whom Ma- 
jor Pitcairn ordered to disperse. On their refusal they 
were fired upon and eight were killed. This began the 
War of Independence (April 19, 1775). . 

6. Blinker Hill. — The colonists now rose and drove the 
British from Concord. They retreated to Boston. In less 
than a month there were twenty thousand armed colonists 
encamped around that city. A second Continental Con- 
Give an account of the destruction of tea at Boston. 4. When and where was 

the Declaration of Rights drawn up 1 What did it set forth ? 5. What took 
place at Lexington ? 6. What followed the retreat of the British ? 



486 History of the World. [ a .d. 1775-1776 

gress met at Philadelphia (May 10, 1775) and formed a 
federal union with governmental authority. The British 
army in Boston was reinforced, and on June 17, 1775, the 
battle of Bunker Hill was fought, which resulted in a de- 
feat of the Americans, but at a very dear price. 

7. Campaign in Canada. — The colonial force was named 
the Continental Army by Congress, and the chief command 
was given to George Washington. A second army was 
raised for an attack on Canada, and the command given 
to General Schuyler. He falling sick, it devolved on Mont- 
gomery, an Irish officer of experience and repute. Mont- 
gomery took Montreal, and with Benedict Arnold attacked 
Quebec. The attack failed and Montgomery was killed. 

8. Declaration of Independence. — On March 17, 1776, the 
British evacuated Boston. On July 2 (proclaimed July 4) 
Congress declared that "these United Colonies are, and of 
right ought to be, free and independent States ; that they 
are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and 
that all political connection between them and the state of 
Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved." The 
reasons for the separation were drawn up by Thomas Jef- 
ferson in the celebrated Declaration of Independence. 

9. Defeat of the Colonists. — "Washington had moved on 
New York, where he was watching the British. On Au- 
gust 27 the colonists were defeated on Long Island. In 
September New York was evacuated and remained in the 
hands of the British to the close of the war. 

10. Colonial Successes. — Washington's courage and skill 
alone saved the cause of independence at this time. He 
rallied and reorganized his disheartened forces in the very 
face of the enemy. He retreated slowly, drawing them 
after him. A sudden victory over a body of Hessians 

On what did the second Continental Congress determine ? What occurred at Bun- 
ker Hill ? 7. Give an account of the Canadian campaign. 8. Of the Declaration of 
Independence. 9. Of the retreat from Long Island. 10. What saved the cause 1 



a.d. 1777-1780] Modern History. 487 

revived the drooping courage of his troops, and was fol- 
lowed by another success at Princeton (January 3, 1777). 

11. Aid from France. — Benjamin Franklin was sent on 
an embassy to France and succeeded in gaining the alli- 
ance of that country. Money and supplies were liberally 
furnished him. A fleet was also sent, and the offer of 
commissions brought many distinguished soldiers to the 
American cause, chief among whom were Kosciuszko and 
Pulaski, Baron Steuben, Baron de Kalb, and the Marquis 
de Lafayette. 

12. Burgoyne's Surrender (1777). — In September, 1777, 
the Americans were defeated at the Brandywine, and in 
October at G-ermantown. But these reverses were com- 
pensated for by the surrender of General Burgoyne and all 
his command at Saratoga (October 17, 1777). This sur- 
render alarmed the British government, which now at- 
tempted to treat with the colonists. 

13. Alliance with France and Spain (1778). — In Febru- 
ary, 1778, France signed a treaty of commerce and friend- 
ship with the Americans, and of defensive alliance should 
England declare war against France. Spain and Holland 
did the same. The arrival of a French fleet under Count 
d'Estamg caused the British to evacuate Philadelphia and 
relieved "Washington at Valley Forge. The British fell back 
on New York, and "Washington pursued them. 

14. Campaign in the South.— In the winter of 1778-1779 
the British made a diversion in the South. Georgia was 
invaded and occupied. Charleston was taken after a brave 
defence (May 12, 1780). Generals Gates and De Kalb were 
sent South, but were surprised by Lord Cornwallis near 
Camden (August 16). Gates fled and De Kalb was killed. 

15. Arnold's Treason. — Washington's forces were now in 

11. What was Franklin's mission to France ? How did it succeed ? 12. Give 
an account of Burgoyne's campaign. 13. What alliances were made 1 ? What 
forced the British to leave Philadelphia 1 ? 14. Outline Southern campaign. 



488 History of the World. [a.d. 1781-1783 

a state of great destitution. Just at this time Benedict 
Arnold entered into treasonable correspondence with Sir 
Henry Clinton for the surrender of West Point, a post of 
great importance. The plot was discovered, and Andre, 
the English officer and spy, taken and hanged. Arnold 
escaped and was given a command in the British army. 

16. Campaign against Cornwallis. — Another army and 
fleet from France came at this juncture to relieve Wash- 
ington. Meanwhile General Greene was pushing the cam- 
paign against Cornwallis so vigorously in the South that 
after the battle of Eutaw Springs only Charleston and 
Savannah were left in possession of the British. Wash- 
ington was about to attack New York, but changed his 
plan to an attack on Cornwallis. 

17. Surrender of Cornwallis. — He secretly left New York 
and joined the new French force under Eochambeau. Corn- 
wallis had taken up his position on the peninsula between 
the James and York rivers. Lafayette, with inferior for- 
ces, had been watching him. The French fleet, under De 
Grasse, entered the Chesapeake Bay and landed reinforce- 
ments for Lafayette. In September he was joined by 
Washington and Eochambeau, and Cornwallis was sur- 
rounded at Yorktown. Finding resistance useless, the 
English general surrendered with all his force (October 
17, 1781). 

18. Close of the War. — England was weary of the war, 
and the Commons advised peace. A treaty was arranged 
at Paris (November 30, 1782). In March, 1783, Congress 
ratified the action of its commissioners, and on April 19 
the end of the war was proclaimed in Washington's camp 
in Newburg. On November 25 the British evacuated 
New York and Washington marched in. 

15. What did Arnold attempt ? What was his success ? 16. State the pro- 
gress of events in the South. On what did Washington resolve ? 17. Give an 
account of the movement against Yorktown. 18. How did the war end ? 



a.d. 1774-1789] Modern History. 489 

SECTION II. Louis XVI. and the French Revolution (1774-1789). 

19. Condition of France in 1774. — Louis XVI. was only 
twenty when he succeeded his grandfather on the throne of 
France. The early acts of his reign were popular. His 
desire for the happiness of the French people was sincere, 
but the corruption of the preceding reigns had done its 
work. The higher classes had lost the moral standing they 
should have possessed, the poor were in a most wretched 
condition, and the king was not the man to bring about a 
reform, however much he might have desired it. 

20. Convention of the Notables. (1787). — The ministers 
chosen by Louis failed to satisfy the people. The reforms 
they attempted were regarded as infringements on the 
rights of the privileged classes, and they were compelled 
to resign. The finances were in a desperate condition, 
but any attempt to improve them told against the privi- 
leged classes. A convention of the " Notables " of France 
met in 1787 and a scheme for a more equitable system of 
taxation was laid before them. It Avas rejected. ISTecker, 
the minister of finance, advised an assembly of the States- 
General, which had not met since 1614. 

21. Meeting of the States-General. — The States- General 
represented all classes of the people. The success of the 
American colonists reacted on the French, who had so ma- 
terially contributed to that success. The " Third Es- 
tate," or commons, now felt and asserted their power. 
They had hitherto been disregarded, the privileged classes 
alone exercising a voice in legislation. The commons in- 
sisted that the majority of votes should control. They 
gained over some of the clergy and nobility. The result 
was that they carried their point and called themselves 
the National Assembly (June 17, 1789). 

19. When did Louis XVI. succeed to the throne 1 What was the condition of 
Trance at that time 1 20. In what did his ministers fail ? Why was the Conven- 
tion of Notables called ? What did Necker advise ? 21. Relate what followed. 



490 History of the World. [a.d. 1789 

22. Storming of the Bastile (July 14, 1789).— Bailly 

was elected president. At the session of June 20 the 
deputies swore not to separate before giving France a con- 
stitution. Louis, growing alarmed, concentrated troops 
around Paris. This action exasperated the excited popu- 
lace, who saw their liberties menaced. An outbreak oc- 
curred. The people stormed the fortress of the Bastile, 
where state prisoners were confined. The king yielded to 
them in everything. The people went with the National 
Assembly, and the National Assembly followed the most 
violent of its leaders. 

23. Risings in France. — There were massacres in Paris 
and the provinces, the people rising with their newly 
found power. On the night of August 4, 1789, a session 
of the Assembly was held to deliberate on the excesses 
committed in the provinces. Some justified them as a 
right protest against the abuses of feudalism. The cleri- 
cal deputies and the nobles thereupon renounced their 
feudal rights and privileges. The Assembly moved the sup- 
pression of the entire feudal system. The king refused to 
sign the decree. 

24. The King seized. — The royal family was at Ver- 
sailles. It was resolved to get rid of royalty. The Duke 
of Orleans, ambitious to supplant his royal relative, was 
one of the leaders in the movement against him. Cal- 
umnies against the king and queen were set afoot. Ver- 
sailles was besieged by the mob and Louis brought to 
Paris. 

25. Proclamation by the Assembly. — Most of the nobles, 
seeing ivhat was impending, fled the kingdom. Many mem- 
bers of the Assembly sent in their resignations. Liberty 
of the person, liberty of conscience, liberty of the press, 

22, On what did the deputies determine 1 What angered the people ? The re- 
sult ? 23. What took place in the provinces ? What was the Assembly doing 
meanwhile ? 24. What of the seizure of the king ? 25. What were proclaimed ? 



a.d. 1791] Modern History. 491 

the equality of all citizens, the inviolability of their persons, 
and their imprescriptible right to resist oppression, were 
proclaimed. To the king was left no power but that of 
veto. The legislative power was centred in a single cham- 
ber, whose members were to be elected every two years. 

26. The Church attacked. — To provide money the church 
properties were invaded and confiscated. Religious orders 
were abolished and a civil constitution of the clergy was 
decreed. Bishops and parish priests were made eligible 
like civil functionaries. The authority of the pope was 
rejected. The king reluctantly signed the decree. The 
Assembly decreed that its clerical members should sub- 
scribe to the new constitution. All the bishops save two 
refused and were expelled from their sees. The greater 
number of the clergy followed the example of the bish- 
ops. In all France only five bishops took the new oath. 
The " civil " bishops and clergy were installed by force. 
The pope, Pius VI., condemned their intrusion and the 
action of the Assembly in this matter. The Assembly re- 
taliated by an open persecution of the Church. 

27. Louis a Prisoner. — The king was now a virtual pris- 
oner in the Tuileries. He fled (June 21, 1791), bat was 
captured and brought back. He was deprived of his 
functions by a decree of the Assembly and confined in the 
Tuileries. The political clubs demanded his deposition, 
but a show of vigor on the part of the authorities led to 
a momentary triumph. The constitution was revised and 
the king sanctioned the revision (September, 1791). 

SECTION III. Louis XVI. and the Legislative Assembly (1791-1792). 

28. Ascendency of the Girondists. — The Assembly changed 
its name but not its character, the more violent always 

How was the power divided between the king and the Assembly ? 26. Why 
was the Church attacked ? State the various steps taken against the Church. 
27. What happened to Louis meanwhile ? When was the constitution revised ? 



492 History of the World. [a.d. 1791 

ruling. It split up into two parties, the Constitutionalists 
and the Girondists. The latter were more ably led. They 
submitted a decree subjecting to the severest penalties the 
priests who refused to take the oath of the civil constitu- 
tion of the clergy, and another, levelled at the nobles, pro- 
nouncing sentence of death on every emigrant who did 
not return to France before 1791. The king refused to 
sign the decrees. The Girondists overthrew his minis- 
try, and he was obliged to form a new one from their 
ranks. 

29. War with Austria. — The king was compelled to de- 
clare war against Austria for having harbored French re- 
fugees. The opening of the campaign was disastrous for 
France. Blame was laid on the queen and the mob rose 
in Paris. Louis refused to sanction the expulsion of all 
faithful priests and the establishment of a citizen army 
in Paris. The Girondists sought to depose the king. 

30. Louis XVI. deposed. — Foreign events favored them. 
The powers, alarmed at the progress of the Eevolution, 
leagued, against France and invaded it. Vergniaud, the 
most eloquent of the Girondists, rose in the Assembly and 
accused the king and queen of favoring Austria. Peti- 
tions for the deposition of the king poured in to the As- 
sembly. The palace was besieged (August 10), the king 
seized and taken to the Assembly. Under his own eyes 
his deposition was voted, and he was confined in the 
Temple with his queen and the royal family. 

31. Paris Commune. — The Commune of Paris now in- 
vaded the legislative power and set its leaders, Eobes- 
pierre, Danton, and Marat, at the head of affairs. The 
priests and nobles were massacred. The invading Prus- 
sians were checked by Kellermann at Valnry and compelled 

28. How was the Assembly ruled ? Into what parties did it split ? Which be- 
came the ruling party 1 What was Louis obliged to do? 29. What of the war 
with Austria ? 30. Why was Louis deposed ? 31. Tell of the Paris Commune. 



a.d. 1792-1793] Modern History. 493 

to recross the border. The Assembly dissolved and yield- 
ed to the National Convention. 

32. Arraignment and Execution of Louis XVI. — The 

National Convention decreed the abolition of royalty and 
establishment of a French Republic. The foreign inva- 
sion was defeated. The faction called "the Mountain/' 
the more violent, gained the ascendency over the Giron- 
dists. On December 11, 1792, the king was summoned 
before the Convention to answer certain charges against 
him. His bearing and responses were equally admirable. 
The trial was a mockery, and sentence of death was pro- 
nounced on "Louis Capet." The unjust sentence was 
carried into execution on January 21, 1793. 



CHAPTER III. 
EUROPE IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 

Europe in the eighteenth century was troubled by- three wars of succes- 
sion. France and England were rivals in their colonies. Austria and Prus- 
sia were rivals in Germany. There was a general decay of public morals in 
Europe. 

1. General Character of the Century. — The eighteenth 
century was marked by the advance of infidelity in 
Europe, favored by the statesmen of the time. They 
resented the papal claim to spiritual authority, and in 
resisting this undermined the public faith in all authority 
save that of force. Catholic and Protestant sovereigns 
alike lent their aid to the movement. A systematic at- 
tack on the spiritual head of the Catholic Church was 
made on all sides. 

Who checked the Prussians ? To what did the Assembly yield ? 32. What did 
the National Convention decree ? Give an account of the trial and execution 
of Louis XVI. 1. Describe the general character of the eighteenth century. 



494 History of the World. [a.d. 1780-1790 

SECTION I. Joseph II. of Austria (1780-1790). 

2. Josephism. — Maria Theresa died in 1780 and left the 
throne to her son, Joseph II., who wished to rule and 
regulate the Church as well as the state. He was a nar- 
row-minded man, who wished to reform everything and 
everybody on his own plan. The result was that he set 
his empire in an uproar, while his ambition to pose as a 
great warrior brought severe disasters on Austria. He 
abolished serfdom and made German the official language 
in all his empire. Vienna was made the centre of a gov- 
ernment consisting of divers nationalities, and the admin- 
istration was consigned to a set of arbitrary functionaries. 

3. Joseph's Reforms in the Church. — Communication with 
Rome, without royal assent, was forbidden to the bish- 
ops. The ritual was altered to suit the emperor. The re- 
ligious orders were suppressed. An edict of religious tole- 
ration was issued, though the Catholic Church was being 
persecuted. Pius VI. visited the emperor at Vienna and 
vainly warned him of the disasters he was inviting. 

4. Revolts; Failure. — Joseph went on with his reforms 
and the people rose against them. There were bloody re- 
volts in various parts of the empire, which were blood- 
ily suppressed. Unsuccessful on all sides, against the 
Turks and against Frederick of Prussia, he withdrew his 
reforms a short time before his death (February, 1790). 

SECTION II. Rise of Prussia under Frederick II. 

5. Frederick's Policy. — We have seen the advances made 
by Prussia under Frederick II. His genius lifted that 
country into successful rivalry with Austria and placed 
it among the great powers of Europe. After the Seven 
Years' War Frederick devoted himself to the internal 

2. Who succeeded Maria Theresa ? What did he desire ? What was the re- 
sult of his ambition ? 3. Describe Joseph's interference with the Church. 
What action did Pius YT. take ? 4. "What was the result of Joseph's plans ? 



a.d. 1741-1763] Modern History. 495 

affairs of his kingdom. By rigid economy he restored the 
finances and greatly helped trade and manufactures. Re- 
ligion and the press were free in his dominions. 

6. The Work of Frederick the Great. — Frederick con- 
ceived the partition of Poland (1772), in which Catherine 
of Eussia and Maria Theresa had a share. He prevented 
Joseph II. from acquiring the Bavarian succession. At his 
accession his subjects numbered about two millions and a 
quarter. At his death they were over six millions. He 
left a surplus in the treasury of fifty million dollars, an 
army of two hundred and twenty thousand men, a pros- 
perous people, and a territory enlarged by about thirty 
thousand square miles (1786). 

SECTION III. Russia under Catherine II. (1762-1796). 

7. Catherine proclaimed Empress. — After the death of 
Peter the Great Eussia became a prey to revolution. In 
less than forty years six sovereigns were crowned and de- 
throned. Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, was 
placed on the throne in 1741. She affianced her son Pe- 
ter to Catherine, daughter of the governor of Stettin, who 
afterwards became Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst. Catherine was 
a woman of great ambition, extraordinary qualities, and ex- 
tremely lax morals. On the accession of her husband to 
the throne (1762) a conspiracy was set on foot to dispos- 
sess him. The guards hailed Catherine as empress. Peter 
was imprisoned and soon after strangled. Thenceforward 
Catherine reigned alone. 

8. Partitions of Poland. — On the death of Augustus III. 
(1763) Catherine's influence secured the Polish election to 
one of her favorites, Stanislas Poniatowski. The Poles 
indignantly moved for a reform of the constitution, and 

5. Describe Frederick's policy. What success crowned his efforts 1 6. Tor 
what is he responsible ? In what condition did he leave his kingdom ? 7. What 
did Russia suffer after the death of Peter ? How did Catherine gain power ? 



496 History of the World. [a.d. 1768-1796 

formed the Confederation of Bar (1768), to guarantee 
their religious and political liberties. Then came about, 
in conjunction with Frederick the Great and Maria The- 
resa, the first partition of Poland. The Poles were over- 
whelmed by Catherine's armies, and Polish Livonia was 
annexed to Russia. Frederick received almost the whole 
of what is now East Prussia, and Austria took Galicia 
(1772). Another revolt of the Poles only led to a new in- 
vasion and a new partition between Russia and Prussia 
(1793). A third uprising under Kosciuszko brought on a 
final division and the disappearance of Poland as a state. 

9. Reverses of the Turks. — The Sultan of Turkey had 
leagued with the Poles against Catherine. They were 
beaten on the Pruth and the Kagul (1770), and their 
fleet was destroyed by the Russians off Scio. The sul- 
tan sued for peace, which was arranged at Kutchuck- 
Kainardji (1774). The protectorate of the Danubian pro- 
vinces was given over to Catherine, the town of Azof, 
and the liberty of navigating the Black Sea. The Crimea 
was made independent, and the fortress of Sebastopol was 
founded (1784). In the following year Catherine made a 
triumphal progress through the southern provinces of her 
empire, Joseph II. met her at Kherson, and an alliance 
was made against the Turks. 

10. Triumphs and Death, of Catherine. — The war, dis- 
astrous for Austria, added new conquests to Russia, and the 
peace of Jassy (1792) gave to Russia all the country be- 
tween the Bug and Dniester. Gustavus III. of Sweden 
had made common cause with the Turk and threatened 
St. Petersburg, but peace was signed with him in 1790. 
He put an end to the factions among the nobles, and 
was contemplating a coalition for the release and restora- 

8. Who became King of Poland? What followed ? Describe the first partition. 
The second. The final partition. 9. What reverses fell on the Turks ? Ee- 
count the triumphs of Catherine. 10. What did the King of Sweden accomplish ? 



a.d. 1640-1782] Modern History. 497 

tion of Louis XVI. when lie was shot by a conspirator at 
Stockholm (1792). Catherine died a year after annexing 
Courland to Kussia, and while engaged in a war with 
Persia. She left a greatly enlarged empire to her son 
and successor, Paul (1796). 

SECTION IV. Events in Portugal, Spain, and Italy. 

11. Portugal under the Braganzas. — The royal house of 
Braganza shook off the Spanish yoke in 1640, the people 
electing John, Duke of Braganza, their king. A war with 
Spain followed, which ended in the decisive victory of the 
Portuguese at Montesclaros (1665). Portugal was placed 
under the protection of England, much to the detriment 
of its own commerce. The Spanish claim to the throne 
was finally abandoned in 1737. 

12. Pombal. — On the accession of Joseph I., Sebastian de 
Carvalho, afterwards Marquis of Pombal, was made chief 
minister (1756). He was a man of great ability, but in- 
doctrinated in the favorite tenets of the time. He did much 
to develop the resources of the country and strengthen- 
ed the army and navy. But his administration is chiefly 
memorable for his persecution of the Jesuits. He destroy- 
ed their flourishing missions in Paraguay and set on foot 
all sorts of calumnies against them. 

13. Expulsion of the Jesuits (1759). — The nobles also 
became objects of his enmity. An attempt on the life 
of the king gave the crafty minister the plausible pretext 
he was seeking. The Jesuits and nobles were accused of 
complicity in the plot. Several of the nobles were con- 
demned to death, and the Jesuits were banished from all 
the Portuguese dominions (1759). Numbers of them were 
cast into prison, and Father Malagrida, the provincial, a 

In what condition did Catherine leave Russia? 11. Give the origin of the Por- 
tuguese kingdom. Under whose protection was Portugal placed ? 12. Who be- 
came her chief minister 1 13. Give an account of the expulsion of the Jesuits. 



498 History- of the World. [ a .d. 1759-1768 

most venerable and holy man, was burned in the public 
square in Lisbon. 

14. On the death of Joseph I. (1777) and accession of 
Dona Maria the people clamored for the dismissal and 
punishment of Pombal. He was removed from power 
and died in retirement (1782). 

15. Charles III. (1759-1788) and D'Aranda.— On the 
death of Ferdinand VI. Don Carlos was called from the 
throne of the Two Sicilies and the duchies of Parma and 
Piacenza to ascend the Spanish throne. He chose for 
minister D'Aranda, who, like his friends Choiseul and 
Pombal, was an admirer of the new philosophic school of 
Voltaire. Choiseul had brought about an alliance of the 
Bourbon families, and this was used as a weapon of at- 
tack against the Jesuits. 

16. Expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain. — A revolt in 
Madrid (1766) that compelled the king to fly gave D'Aran- 
da an excuse. It was hinted that the Jesuits were at the 
bottom of it ; but the king refused to enter on a persecu- 
tion of the society. Afterwards a forged letter, question- 
ing the king's legitimacy and purporting to come from 
Father Eicci, general of the society, was shown the king. 
It had its effect. On April 2, 1767, a royal despatch to 
all the authorities in Spain and America instructed them 
to conduct the fathers within their jurisdiction to the 
nearest port and place them on board ship. Six thousand 
Jesuits were thus at a blow deprived of their rights, liber- 
ties, and property. The same outrage was perpetrated in 
the kingdom of Naples and the duchy of Parma (1767- 
1768). 

17. Papal Protest. — Pope Clement XIII., as suzerain of 
Parma, pronounced against the act and excommunicated 

14. What took place on the death of the king 1 15. Who succeeded Ferdi- 
nand YI. of Spain ? What is said of his minister ? 16. How was D'Aranda en- 
abled to begin his attack on the Jesuits t What led to their expulsion from Spain ? 



a.d. 1773] Modern History. 499 

the government, declaring the duke to have forfeited his 
right to the duchy. In revenge Ohoiseul seized on Avig- 
non, which had remained in the hands of the popes. The 
papal condemnation was a great blow to the ministers, who 
represented that in assailing the Jesuits they were uphold- 
ing the cause of religion. 

18. General Suppression of the Jesuits (1773). — They 
now demanded, the formal abolition of the society ; and 
the accession of Clement XIV. (1769), an aged Franciscan, 
who was said to be pledged beforehand to their suppres- 
sion, favored the ministers' schemes. A brief was at last 
wrung from the aged pontiff for the suppression of the 
society all over the world (July 21, 1773). 

19. Chief Events of the Century. — The eighteenth cen- 
tury witnessed the decline of the Turkish power in Europe 
and the -disappearance of Poland as a state ; the rise and 
consolidation of Eussia and Prussia ; the conquest of India 
by Great Britain ; the revolt of the people against royalty 
and the privileged classes in France, and the overthrow 
there of the entire feudal system ; the revolt of the Eng- 
lish colonies, save Canada, in North America, and their 
formation into the republic of the United States. The 
century witnessed also the spread of unbelief among the 
educated classes, and a conspiracy among monarchs and 
statesmen against the rights of the Holy See, which de- 
veloped into a general attack on the Christian religion. 

17. What action did Pope Clement XIII. take ? How did Choisenl retaliate ? 
18. How was the suppression of the Jesuits brought about 1 19. What were the 
chief events in the Old World during the century ? In America? 



FIFTH EPOCH. 

FROM THE BEGINNING OP THE FRENCH RESOLUTION TO THE 
PEACE OF PARIS (1792-1815). 

The fifth epoch comprises the French Revolution and the attempts to estab- 
lish a popular form of government in France, "with the coalitions of the Euro- 
pean powers against that government. The republic is overthrown by Napo- 
leon Bonaparte and a military empire established, against "which the coalitions 
continue. 



CHAPTER I. 
THE FIRST FRENCH REPUBLIC. 

The French Republic, "which was proclaimed at the opening of the Conven- 
tion, passed through three phases of government : the Convention, the Direc- 
tory, and the Consulate. 

SECTION I. The Convention after the Execution of Louis XVI. (1793- 

1795). 

1. Coalition against the Republic. — The execution of 
Louis XVI. and the proclamation of a new order of goy- 
ernment in France shocked and alarmed all Europe. The 
republic proclaimed "the rights of man," and monarchs 
trembled for their thrones. Pitt organized a coalition of 
the powers against the republic, Switzerland, Venice, 
Sweden, and Denmark alone standing aloof. The plan 
of the Allies was to march on Paris and set Louis' son, 
then a prisoner in the Temple, on the throne. 

2. Invasion of France by the allied Powers. — The Aus- 

What does the fifth epoch comprise ? What phases did the government of 
France undergo ? 1. Ho-w did the French excesses affect Europe ? What did 
the republic proclaim ? What coalition was made against France ? 

500 



a.d. 1793] Modern History. 501 

trians advanced into Belgium and defeated Dumouriez at 
JSTeerwinden. Dumouriez was a partisan of the Duke of 
Orleans. His loyalty to the republic being suspected, an 
order was given for his arrest. He arrested the commis- 
sioners, but, having lost the confidence of his troops, fled 
with the Duke of Orleans to the Austrian camp (April, 
1793). 

SECTION II. The Eeign of Terror. 

3. The Committee of Safety. — France, threatened by in- 
vasion on all sides, was under a terrorism at home. Men 
knew not whom to trust. The general of the republic 
had gone over to the Austrians. A revolutionary tribu- 
nal was set up to judge without appeal all Frenchmen 
who were thought guilty of attempts against the republic. 
A Committee of Public Safety, consisting of nine mem- 
bers, was established and entrusted with dictatorial power. 

4. Anarchy in France. — Various factions were contend- 
ing for the mastery. The Jacobins, who were the more 
violent, gained the upper hand, and the leading Girondists 
were imprisoned. A new constitution was drawn up. It 
declared insurrection to be the most sacred of rights and 
indispensable of duties. It was inaugurated by a revolt-, 
ing pagan ceremonial. 

5. Robespierre and Marat. — Terrible excesses were com- 
mitted in the name of law all over France, which was lit- 
erally ruled by the mob. In Paris Robespierre was insinu- 
ating himself into the chief power. His associate, Marat, 
was slain by Charlotte Corday, a Girondist girl. She was 
executed, and the death of Marat gave his associates ex- 
cuse for fresh excesses. 

8. Assignats. — A general enrolment of all Frenchmen 

2. Who inTaded France ? Who fled to the Austrian camp ? 3. What tribunal 
was set up in France 1 To whom was dictatorial power entrusted ? 4. What 
factions contended for the mastery ? The result 1 5. Who led the Jacobins 1 



502 History of the World. [a.d. 1793 

was decreed. Funds were raised by forcing a loan from 
the rich and by the issue of paper money, called assi- 
gnats. Plenary power was given to the Committee of 
Public Safety, and the government was decreed revolu- 
tionary until the conclusion of peace. 

7. Royalist Eisings. — Vendee rose for the restoration 
of the monarchy, and several towns and departments 
took up arms against the Convention. Lyons under- 
went a siege, and was subjected to a terrible vengeance 
when at last compelled to surrender. Toulon proclaimed 
Louis XVII. ; and in the siege of that city the young 
Corsican artillery officer, Napoleon Bonaparte, first came 
into prominence. When Toulon fell another fearful ven- 
geance was taken on the citizens (December, 1793). 

8. Defeat of the Vendeans. — The rising in Vendee prov- 
ed more formidable under the leadership of Jacques Ca- 
thelineau, a peasant. He roused the peasantry against the 
draft, and several of the Vendean gentry joined the move- 
ment. Saumur was taken and a junction was effected 
with the Chouans of Brittany, who had also risen. Ca- 
thelineau was made generalissimo of the " Grand Eoyal and 
Catholic Army." Angers was taken, but Nantes defied all 
their attacks, and in besieging it Cathelineau fell (June, 
1793). His death was a fatal blow to his cause. Disas- 
ters speedily followed. The armies of the republic, under 
Kellermann, Marceau, and Kleber, came up, and, defeating 
the Vendeans at Angers and Mans, crushed them near 
Savenay. 

9. Execution of Marie Antoinette. — All this time the 
royal family was in prison. The queen, Marie Antoinette, 
daughter of Maria Theresa, was now summoned before the 
Convention, subjected to a mock trial, condemned, and exe- 

6. How were funds obtained ? 7. Give an account of the royalist risings. 
What happened at Lyons ? At Toulon 1 8. What is said of the Vend6an leader ? 
How was the movement crushed ? 9. Where was the queen meanwhile t 



a.d. 1793] Modern History. 503 

cuted (October, 1793). The Girondists, who had organized 
the Eevolution, were the next "victims. The Duke of Or- 
leans, who had voted the death of the king, was also con- 
demned and executed for having aspired to sovereignty. 

10. The Allies defeated. — The greed and selfishness of 
the allied powers set all Frenchmen against them and 
caused dissensions among the powers themselves. The re- 
public put forth extraordinary exertions and sent its ragged 
and half-disciplined armies against united Europe. Meet- 
ing at first with severe reverses, they yet succeeded in 
driving the Allies across the Rhine, and France was free 
of invasion. 

11. Pillage of the Churches. — At home France was still 
the prey of factions. The worst men were in power and 
terror reigned. Orders were given to pillage all the 
churches, and the orders were carried out to the letter. 
The object was ostensibly to supply the government with 
funds, but most of the pillage found its way to the pock- 
ets of the government officers. The most horrible sacri- 
leges took place ; the holiest of ceremonies were travestied 
in the very churches, which were made the scenes of bac- 
chanalian orgies. The Goddess of Reason, in the shape of 
an infamous woman, was enthroned on the altar of Notre 
Dame and incense burned before her. Everything took a 
pagan cast, even the names of the dates and seasons. 

12. Triumph of Robespierre. — Robespierre had gradually 
forced his way to the front by the execution of his rivals. 
He had pretensions to religion and moved the Convention 
to recognize the immortality of the soul and the existence 
of a Supreme Being. A public feast was held in honor of 
the Supreme Being, Robespierre officiating as pontiff. His 
pretensions brought on him the ridicule of his colleagues, 

What was her fate? Who were the nest victims? 10. How did the allied 
powers injure themselves ? What success followed the exertions of the French ? 
11. What was the internal condition of France ? 12. What is said of Robespierre? 



504 History of the World. [ a .d. 1794 

and to revenge himself on them he had passed the law of 
the 22d Prairial (June 10, 1794). 

13. Wholesale Executions. — This law dispensed with all 
the ordinary forms of justice, and the prisons were soon 
glutted with persons of all ages and conditions. They were 
led in troops to the scaffold. One day were executed forty- 
five members of the parliament of Paris ; another day thir- 
ty-two members of the parliament of Toulouse ; again an 
entire community of Carmelite nuns, and so on. Most of 
the great towns witnessed similar scenes. 

14. Fall of Hobespierre. — Kobespierre was now (1794) at 
the height of his power, but he had jealous factions plot- 
ting secretly against him. Henriot, chief of the Paris mili- 
tia, offered to massacre all his adversaries while assembled 
in convention, but Kobespierre hesitated. After having 
absented himself for some time from the Convention he 
again re-entered it, only to find that it would not listen to 
him. He was arrested with his brother and associates and 
hurried off to prison. On their way they were met and 
delivered by Henriot. The Convention decreed them out- 
laws. They were seized by the troops of the Convention, 
again imprisoned, and executed on July 28, 1794. 

15. Success of the EepuMican Arms. — The armies of the 
republic were continuing their successes. The Duke of 
Coburg, supported by Generals CI erf ay t and Beaulieu, 
marched on Paris. Pichegru and Jourdan, the Eepubli- 
can generals, let him pass. Pichegru fell upon Clerfayt 
and crushed him, while Jourdan beat Beaulieu. The Duke 
of Coburg, hastening to Beaulieu's assistance, suffered a 
severe defeat at Fleurus; and Belgium lay open to the 
French armies. 

16. Massacre at Qndberon. — Coburg was driven back to 

How did he revenge himself on his enemies ? 13. What followed the passage 
of this law? 14. Give an account of the fall of Robespierre. 15. Recount the 
successes of Pichegru and Jourdan. What was the effect of these victories ? 



a.d. 1794-1795] Modern History. 505 

Germany by Jourdan, who swept along the left bank of 
the Ehine, while Pichegru possessed himself of the fort- 
resses on the Holland frontiers (1794-1795). A final at- 
tempt on the part of the royalists, favored by England, 
met with a disastrous defeat at Quiberon, and was followed 
by a cruel massacre of the prisoners who had capitulated. 
About the same time died the only son of Louis XVI., a 
victim of the brutal treatment he had received at the hands 
of his jailer. His uncle, the Count of Provence, assumed 
the title of king under the name of Louis XVIII. (1795). 

17. The Coalition broken. — The Allies were weary of the 
invasion. Prussia made a private peace with the republic, 
surrendering its possessions on the left bank of the Ehine ; 
Spain followed ; Holland, erected into the Batavian Ee- 
public, became an ally of France ; Austria remained on 
the defensive ; but Pitt resolved on continuing the strug- 
gle. 

18. Insurrection in Paris — After the death of Eobes- 
pierre the Convention abolisbed the most odious of the 
revolutionary laws, but the factions still raged. A for- 
midable insurrection broke out in Paris (May 20, 1795), 
but was put down. The six chief conspirators, being con- 
demned to death, stabbed themselves in presence of their 
judges. 

19. The Convention yields to the Directory. — France was 
weary of the Convention, and that body, before dissolving, 
presented the country with a new constitution, the third 
in six years. The executive power was confided to a Di- 
rectory of five members. A decree constituting the mem- 
bers of the Convention a necessary part of the legislative 
body provoked great opposition. Paris rose and marched 
to besiege the Convention, who entrusted their defence to 

16. What events led to the massacre of Quiberon ? What became of Louis' 
only son? 17. How was the coalition against Franc e" broken ? 18. What followed 
the death of Robespierre 1 19. What led to the establishment of the Directory ? 



506 History of the World. [ A .d, 1795-1796 

Barras. Barras called to his assistance Napoleon Bona- 
parte, who planted his artillery so as to sweep all the ave- 
nues leading to the Convention. The sections were de- 
feated (October 5, 1795) and disarmed. The Directory was 
installed and the members of the Convention became mem- 
bers of the new legislative body. 

SECTION III. The Directory (1795-1799). 

20. The Directory was composed of five members, and 
was assisted by two councils, called the Ancients and Five 
Hundred. Bivalries soon broke out among the various 
legislative bodies. 

21. Bonaparte's first Campaign in Italy (April, 1796). — 
As a reward for his services to the Convention the young 
Napoleon Bonaparte was appointed to the command of 
the army contending against the Austrians in Italy. Gen- 
eral Scherer had defeated the Austrians and Piedmontese 
at Loano, but failed to follow up his victory. On arriv- 
ing at the scene of battle Napoleon at once showed his 
mastery. The Austrians guarded the passes into Lom- 
bardy, the Sardinians those of Piedmont. Bonaparte had 
about thirty thousand men opposed to twice that number. 
Advancing suddenly between the Alps and the Apennines, 
he surprised and routed the Austrians at Montenotte. 
The routed forces concentrated at Dego, but were gradu- 
ally forced back into Lombardy. 

22. The Sardinians defeated. — The Sardinians, beaten by 
Augereau and cut off from their allies, hastened to cover 
their capital, Turin. Bonaparte followed fast and pushed 
them back to its very walls. As a price of peace the Sar- 
dinian king surrendered his fortresses and gave up his 

On whom did Barras call for assistance ? What became of the Convention ? 
20. Give the composition o'f the Directory. 21. How was Bonaparte rewarded 
for his services ? What was the condition of affairs in Northern Italy ? 



a.d. 1796] Modern History. 507 

rights over Savoy and Nice. Thus after the work of a 
few days Italy trembled at the conqueror. 

23. Conquest of Lombardy. — Freed from the Piedmontese, 
Bonaparte turned again on the Austrians, and by wonder- 
ful daring defeated the flower of their forces at the bridge 
of Lodi (May, 1796). This opened the way into Lom- 
bardy, and he entered Milan in triumph. He immediately 
established republican institutions in Lombardy and exact- 
ed a sum of twenty millions of francs. The people re- 
volted at the terms, and a formidable insurrection broke 
out at Pavia, which was put down with a bloody and mer- 
ciless hand. Leaving terror behind him, Bonaparte ad- 
vanced once more against the Austrians and surprised 
them at the passage of the Mincio. Driving them back 
to Trent, he remained master of Lombardy. 

24. Further Conquests. — The conqueror compelled the 
republic of Yenice to cede its strong places and feed his 
armies. The Duke of Modena was deposed. The Duke 
of Parma and the King of Naples only escaped a like fate 
at the cost of enormous contributions. Pope Pius VI., 
who was especially hated by the Directory, was mulcted 
twenty-one million francs and compelled to surrender the 
legations of Bologna and Ferrara. 

25. Jourdan and Moreau in Germany (1796). — While 
Bonaparte was thus sweeping all before him in Italy, Mo- 
reau, Avho had succeeded Pichegru, crossed the Rhine and 
penetrated into Bavaria, while Jourdan advanced towards 
Bohemia. Their plan was to force the mountains of the 
Tyrol, and, uniting with the army of Italy, march on 
Vienna. 

26. Defeat of Jourdan. — The young Archduke Charles, 
brother of the Emperor Francis II., commanded the Aus- 

22. What befell the Sardinians? 23. What happened at Lodi? How did 
Bonaparte act in Lombardy ? What followed ? 24. How did Bonaparte treat 
the Italian principalities? 25, What of Jourdan and Moreau? 



508 History of the World. [a.d. 1796 

trians. He fell back slowly before the superior forces of 
the enemy, drawing them after him. His strategy at last 
succeeded in separating them so widely that they were no 
longer able to act in concert. Suddenly leaving Moreau, 
Charles fell upon Jourdan, surprised and defeated him 
near Bamberg, and routed his forces. The people rose as 
the French passed, and harassed them in every way in re- 
venge for the excesses they had committed. Jourdan at 
last succeeded in reaching the left bank of the Rhine with 
a mere remnant of his force. 

27. Moreau's Retreat. — This defeat ruined the concerted 
movement. Moreau was now exposed and threatened to 
be surrounded. He was three hundred miles from France 
and in the midst of a hostile people. He determined to 
march back, and with infinite strategy and skill succeeded 
in doing so, bringing up his forces intact at Huningue. 
Still, the fruit of the conquests of three months was thus 
lost in fifteen days. 

28. Siege of Mantua. — On the other hand, Bonaparte had 
laid siege to Mantua, the key of Italy (August, 1796). 
The Austrians, under Wurmser, made a supreme effort to 
save it. At the approach of Wurmser Bonaparte hastily 
abandoned the siege, and "Italy is lost to the French" 
was the cry through the country. They mistook their 
man. He had only withdrawn to concentrate his forces. 
He fell upon "Wurmser's lieutenant and defeated him at 
Lonato. A few hours later he was nearly surprised by 
the Austrians, but, escaping and uniting with Augereau, he 
defeated Wurmser at Castiglione, and the siege of Man- 
tua was resumed. 

29. The Austrians cross the Adige. — The indomitable 
Wurmser assembled a new army at Trent, and, crossing 

26. How did the Archduke Charles act? 27. Describe Moreau's retreat. 28. 
What happened at Mantua? Who was opposed to Bonaparte ? 29. Describe the 
struggle between Bonaparte and Wurmser. 



a.d. 1796] Modern History. 509 

Venetian territory, sought to approach Mantua by the 
lower Adige. Bonaparte followed and beat him at Bas- 
sano (September, 1796). Wurmser's scattered forces fled 
to Mantua. The negligence of a French officer sent to 
intercept him allowed the Austrian general to cross the 
Adige at Legnano. Piercing the lines of the besieging 
army, he entered Mantua, with Bonaparte hot on his 
heels. 

30. Battle of Areola. — Another Austrian army was sent, 
under Alvinczy, to relieve the besieged city. Bonaparte 
occupied Verona and Alvinczy took up his position on the 
heights of Oaldiero overlooking the city. Bonaparte at- 
tempted to dislodge him, but was repulsed and compelled 
to re-enter Verona. In a succeeding combat five French 
generals fell, and disaster seemed to have fallen on the 
French arms. Attempting to extricate himself from his 
position, Bonaparte, after desperate fighting, suffered an- 
other repulse in trying to carry the bridge of Areola 
(November, 1796). Two days of fighting followed, when 
the Austrians, completely broken up, retreated, leaving Bo- 
naparte conqueror of the bloodiest field he had yet fought 
in Italy. 

31. Battle of Eivoli and Fall of Mantna.— Still Wurmser 
held Mantua. Alvinczy, recruiting, marched from Trent 
with a fourth army to his relief. Descending the left 
bank of the Adige, he met the French drawn up on the 
plateau of Eivoli. His attack was hopelessly repulsed and 
Bonaparte hastened back to Mantua. One of Alvinczy' s 
lieutenants had already reached the suburbs of the city 
with relief, and Wurmser made a sortie to join him. The 
French faced both. Wurmser was driven back and the 
relieving forces compelled to surrender. Mantua, consumed 

30. Who now cauie on the scene? What happened at Verona and Areola? 
What was the final result of the fighting? 31. Describe the battle of Eivoli and 
the fall of Mantua. 



510 History of the World. [ A .d. 1797 

by famine, capitulated a few days later, and the French 
were masters of all northeastern Italy (January, 1797). By 
order of the Directory Bonaparte then invaded the States 
of the Church and forced Pius VI. to sign the treaty of 
Tolentino. The pope was made to pay thirty- one million 
francs and cede Ancona and others of his possessions. 

32. Bonaparte marches on Vienna. — Bonaparte, having re- 
ceived reinforcements, now set out for Vienna. As he en- 
tered Friuli he was opposed by the Archduke Charles with 
inferior forces. The Austrians were driven back from post 
to post until within thirty leagues of Vienna. The em- 
peror then sought an armistice, which was signed at Leo- 
ben (April, 1797). The French themselves needed peace. 
Bonaparte, though' a conqueror, held a very dangerous posi- 
tion. An Austrian army was following in his rear and 
the Tyrol had risen against him. Venice also rose, and 
in revenge for its suffering massacred the French sick 
and wounded left within its walls and joined the Austrians. 
Bonaparte wreaked a terrible vengeance on the Venetians. 
Then, without waiting for the Directory, who had ordered 
Hoche and Moreau to march straight on Vienna, he ended 
the war himself by the treaty of Campo-Formio, which 
put an end to the first European coalition against France. 

33. Treaty of Campo-Formio (1797). — By the terms of 
this treaty Francis II. ceded to France Belgium and the 
territory along the left bank of the Bhine, as well as his 
rights over Lombardy. He recognized the independence 
of the Cisalpine Republic which Bonaparte had formed 
out of the possessions taken from Austria, the Dnke of 
Modena, and the pope. The Venetian states were ceded 
to the emperor, with the exception of the Ionian Islands, 
which France retained. A congress assembled at Kastadt 

How did the Directory treat the pope ? 32. What new expedition did Bona- 
parte undertake ? What happened at Teniee ? Why did Bonaparte make peace ? 
33. Give the terms of the treaty of Campo-Formio. 



a.d. 1797-1798] Modern History. 511 

was to regulate the indemnities to the dispossessed princes 
(October 17, 1797). 

34. Coup d'Etat. — France was now victorious over all her 
foreign enemies, but continued to be rent at home. There 
was contention between the Directory and the rival Cham- 
bers. The Directory had the executive power and exer- 
cised it. By order of the Directory, on September 4, 1797 
(18th Fructidor), General Augereau entered Paris by night 
and seized upon all the positions of importance. The 
elections of the deputies opposed to the Directory were 
declared null, and the chief members, General Pichegru 
among the number, were exiled to French Guiana. 

35. Faith in the Directory destroyed. — This action de- 
stroyed public faith in the Directory. There were many 
causes of grave complaint against it : peculation, avowed 
atheism, and open immorality. Its foreign policy dis- 
turbed Europe. It brought on a revolution in Eome. Ber- 
thier, the French general, entered the city at the head 
of an army, proclaimed a Eoman republic, and imprison- 
ed Pope Pius VI. (February, 1798). The pope was drag- 
ged a captive into France and died of his sufferings at 
Valence (1799). In the following year his successor, Pius 
VII., was elected at Venice. 

36. Europe again alarmed. — The Directory also created 
a revolution and new Helvetian Eepublic in Switzerland, 
and took from it the cities of Muhlhausen, Geneva, and Po- 
rentruy (1798). A few days later a French army entered 
Naples and proclaimed there the Parthenopian Eepublic. 
Europe was again alarmed. 

37. England alone had refused to sign the peace. An 
immense army assembled in the north and the command 
was given to Bonaparte. Ostensible preparations were 

34. What happened in France meanwhile? Tell of the coup d'etat. 35. 
What resulted from the coup d'etat? What befell Pius VI.? 36. Describe 
events in Switzerland and Naples. 37. What action did England take ? 



512 History of the World. [a.d. 1798-1799 

made for the invasion of England ; but Bonaparte's idea 
was to strike it in the East by conquering Egypt, the 
commercial market between Europe and Asia, thus destroy- 
ing English ascendency in the East and crushing its ris- 
ing power in India. 

38. Campaign in Egypt (1798). — Bonaparte suddenly left 
camp, assembled thirty-six thousand of his chosen troops, 
and with a large fleet embarked for Egypt (May, 1798). 
Pausing on the way at Malta, he treacherously took that 
strong fortress from the Knights of St. John, whose guest 
he was, pillaged it, and handed it over to the republic. 

39. Battle of the Pyramids. — Proceeding to Egypt, he 
landed near Alexandria, occupied the city, and marched on 
Cairo. He was vigorously opposed by the Mamelukes, who 
held the country under the Turkish sultan. As he drew 
near Cairo the whole force of the Mamelukes assembled to 
oppose him under shadow of the Pyramids. After a brave 
defence the Mamelukes were routed and Cairo fell (July 
21, 1798). 

40. Victory of Nelson. — The victory was neutralized, 
however, by Nelson, the English admiral, who had fol- 
lowed the French fleet and destroyed it at the mouth of 
the Nile (August 1, 1798). Bonaparte was thus left with- 
out the means of returning to Europe. He set to work 
to conquer the country. Sending the gallant Desaix to 
pursue the Mamelukes in Upper Egypt, he himself forti- 
fied the mouths of the Nile and occupied the strongholds 
of the country. He tried to win over the people by set- 
ting himself up as the "favorite of Allah," but failed; 
and a formidable insurrection breaking out in Cairo was 
quelled with great severity. 

41. Expedition into Syria (1799). — The sultan declared 

How did Bonaparte's Egyptian expedition originate ? 38. What of Malta? 39. 
Describe the battle of the Pyramids. 40. How was Bonaparte's victoiy neutral- 
ized ? Sketch his course in Egypt. 



a.d. 1799] Modern History. 513 

war against the republic. Bonaparte invaded Syria, hoping 
to gain over all the Christians of the East and overthrow 
the empire of Constantinople and India — a project that, 
as he said, would have changed the face of the globe. He 
was successful at the beginning, but finding himself over- 
loaded with prisoners, and fearful of letting them escape, 
he barbarously ordered their massacre at Jaffa. The mas- 
sacre brought on a pestilence in his own army. 

42. Siege of St, John of Acre. — In besieging St. John 
of Acre he was met by an invincible resistance, the Eng- 
lish fleet materially aiding the defence. An army of the 
sultan crossed the Jordan, and Kleber, who was sent to 
oppose it with greatly inferior forces, would have been 
surrounded had not Bonaparte hastened to his relief. 
Acre was at last abandoned and Bonaparte returned, de- 
feated, into Egypt. 

43. Second European Coalition (1799). — In Egypt he 
learned that France was given over to anarchy. Leaving 
the command of the army to Kleber, he hastily returned 
to France, eluding the English admiral. After Nelson's 
victory at Aboukir and Bonaparte's imprisonment, as it 
was considered, in Egypt, England was enabled to form 
a new coalition against the republic. It consisted of Eng- 
land, Russia, Austria, Portugal, and Sicily. 

44. The French were already beaten in Italy when 
Suvaroff, the Eussian general, famous for his exploits 
against the Poles and Turks, invaded the country. Mo- 
reau and Macdonald were defeated, and in a short time 
Genoa, held by Macdonald, was all that remained of the 
French conquests in Italy. Suvaroff now quarrelled with 
the Austrians, was beaten by Massena at Zurich, and com- 
pelled to return to Bussia. 

41. Describe the Syrian campaign. 42. Describe the siege of Acre. 43. Why 
did Bonaparte return to Trance 1 What new coalition was formed ? 44, Tell of 
events in Italy. 



514 History of the World. [ A .d. 1799 

45. Coup d'Etat (November 9, 1799).— The Directory 
had been compelled to succumb to the authority of the 
two Chambers, who quarrelled among themselves, and 
France was in a state of anarchy. This was the condition 
of affairs when Bonaparte again entered Paris (October, 
1799). The Ancients were in his favor, and he was given 
command of the troops in Paris. His opportunity had 
come, and on November 10, at the head of the gene- 
rals and soldiers devoted to him, he appeared before the 
Council and informed them that the time had come to 
give the republic a more fitting constitution. There was 
violent opposition and outcry, and Bonaparte faltered. 
" Turn them out," advised Sieyes, a member of the re- 
signed Directory, and his advice was taken. The grena- 
diers cleared the Chambers. The Directory was sup- 
pressed and a Consulate formed, with Bonaparte, Sie- 
yes, and Eoger-Ducos as temporary consuls, charged to 
give France a new constitution. 

SECTION IV. The Consulate (1799-1804). 

46. Bonaparte First Consul. — The new constitution invest- 
ed Bonaparte with the title of First Consul and absolute 
power. The other two consuls, Cambaceres and Lebrun, 
chosen by himself, were ministers rather than colleagues. 
He reorganized the administration of the whole of France, 
placing each department under a prefect and sub-prefect 
appointed by himself. Thus he already held the whole 
power of the state in his hand and the army worshipped 
him as its chief. 

47. Wise Measures of the First Consul. — He now urged 
the reconciliation of parties, abolished the laws against 
the French emigrants, suppressed the pagan festival of 

45. How was Bonaparte received in Paris? What action did he take? De- 
scribe the coup d'6tat. 46. What power and title were given Bonaparte ? How 
did he use his power ? 



a.d. 1800] Modern History. 515 

January 21, and authorized the free exercise of Catholic 
worship. The change was grateful to an exhausted peo- 
ple as well as to Europe. Bonaparte, anxious to secure 
the good- will of all, invited Austria and England to 
make peace. They refused, and he gave them war. 

48. Campaign of 1800. — Moreau was sent down the val- 
ley of the Danube, while Massena was ordered to guard 
the Alps. Bonaparte himself secretly collected thirty-five 
thousand of his best soldiers near Geneva. Placing him- 
self at their head, he set out for the summit of the Great 
St. Bernard. In five days, by almost superhuman exer- 
tions, he succeeded in transporting his army, with all its 
munitions of war, over heights deemed impassable. Be- 
fore Europe knew where he was he had fallen like a thun- 
derbolt on Italy and was hastening to Milan. At his sum- 
mons sixty thousand French poured into the country from 
various points, while the Austrians were massed against 
Genoa or passing into Provence. 

49. Marengo. — Melas, the Austrian generalissimo, hear- 
ing at last of Bonaparte's arrival, endeavored to escape by 
way of Piacenza. But Lannes was before him on the 
route and beat his general at Montebello, forcing the Aus- 
trians back towards Alessandria, where Melas had concen- 
trated his forces. Here Bonaparte hoped to enmesh him, 
but Melas, suddenly debouching into the plain of Maren- 
go, surprised the French and scattered the small force op- 
posed to him. 

50. Desais saves the Day. —Bonaparte was beaten and 
about to retreat when Desaix came up with reinforce- 
ments and artillery. "The battle is lost," said Desaix, 
"but," looking at his watch, "it is only three o'clock. 
There is time left to win another." The Austrians were 

47. What caused the new war ? 48. Describe Bonaparte's plan of campaign. 
What famous passage did Bonaparte mahe ? 49. How were the Austrians taken '? 
50. Describe the battle of Marengo. Who saved the day ?■ 



516 History of the World. [a.d. 1801-1802 

already on the march through Piacenza when Desaix at- 
tacked them and fell mortally wounded at the first on- 
slaught. His death only inflamed his soldiers to vengeance. 
Kellermann's cavalry cut the Austrians in two by a bril- 
liant charge. Melas was driven back with shattered forces 
into Alessandria, and, in despair, signed an armistice that 
surrendered the north of Italy to France. 

51. Moreau ; Peace of Limeville (1801). — Meanwhile Mo- 
reau was marking his way through Germany by a series of 
victories. These he completed by a final one at Hohenlin- 
den, in the heart of Bavaria. He advanced to within twen- 
ty leagues of Vienna, when Austria, having no more armies 
to oppose to him, begged for peace. It was signed at Lune- 
ville and restored to France the position she had gained 
at the treaty of Campo-Formio. Parma and Piedmont 
were united to France and Elba was taken from the King 
of Naples. 

52. Loss of Egypt. — Bonaparte vainly endeavored to free 
his army in Egypt. England swept the seas. Kleber held 
his own till he fell by the hand of an assassin on the day 
of Marengo. His successor was beaten by the Turks at 
Alessandria, and, with his troops, was conveyed back to 
France in English vessels. Egypt was lost to France. 

53. Peace of Amiens (1802). — Bonaparte attempted to 
form a counter-league against England to ensure the free- 
dom of the seas ; but the English naval power proved too 
strong. At the same time the czar, Paul I., an ally and 
admirer of Bonaparte, fell at the hands of assassins. Left 
to his own resources, he prepared for the invasion of Eng- 
land, and the mere preparation led to the peace of Amiens 
(March, 1802), by which France and her allies were left in 
possession of all their colonies, save the islands of Trinidad 

What armistice did Melas sign ? 51. What was Moreau doing meanwhile ? 
What was the peace of Luneville ? 52. How was Egypt lost to France ? 53. 
What occasioned the peace of Amiens ? 



a.d. 1803-1804] Modern History. 517 

and Ceylon, which fell to England. England restored 
Malta to the Knights of St. John, and France promised to 
respect her neighbors' boundaries. 

54. The Concordat (1802). — Bonaparte was wise enough 
to see the necessity of religion in upholding and conserv- 
ing society. On attaining to power he had hastened to 
restore Christian worship in France, but he wanted the 
Church, like all things else, absolutely subject to himself. 
A Concordat was at last agreed upon with the Holy See 
(1802). The instrument, though productive of good to 
France, was open to constant dispute between the head of 
the state and the Church. 

55. Bonaparte used the interval of peace to strengthen 
his power at home and his influence abroad. He had a 
steadfast enemy in England, who viewed with jealous eye 
his attempts to restore the French maritime power. She 
refused to surrender Malta, as agreed, which was the signal 
for a new outbreak of hostilities. 

56. Plots against Bonaparte. — An attempt at this time 
on the life of the First Consul greatly added to his popu- 
larity. It came from the royalists, whom he had won over 
by indulging them with the belief that he would set Louis 
XVIII. on the throne. The plots and intrigues against 
him now led the Consul into a most dastardly act. 

57. Murder of the Duke d'Enghien. — The young Duke 
d'Enghien, a Bourbon prince, the last of the race of Conde, 
was staying across the frontier at Ettenheim. He was seized 
at dead of night by a party of dragoons and conveyed to 
Vincennes. He had no complicity whatever in royalist 
plots or attempts against the First Consul or the govern- 
ment of France. Nevertheless that same night a military 
commission, by Bonaparte's orders, went through the form 

54. What was the Concordat and its effect? 55. What occasioned the new out- 
break? 56. What plots were formed against Bonaparte ? 57. Describe the mur- 
der of the Duke d'Enghien. What followed the murder ? 



518 History of the World. [ a .d. 1804 

of trial and condemned him to death. He was taken out 
and shot, refusing to let his eyes be bandaged by his exe- 
cutioners. All France was horror-stricken at the crime. 
Other royalist executions followed. Moreau, Bonaparte's 
rival in military prowess, was exiled. Pichegru was found 
dead in prison, and the power of Bonaparte was supreme. 



OHAPTEK II. 
THE EMPIRE (1804-1815). 

The history of the empire under Napoleon Bonaparte embraces three dis- 
tinct periods: 1. From his assumption of the crown to the treaty of Tilsit 
(1804-1807) ; 2. Prom that treaty to the war with Russia (1807-1812) ; 3. 
Thence to the end of the Hundred Days (1812-1815). From his accession to 
his downfall the general history of Europe centres around this extraordinary 
figure. 

SECTION I. The Empire to the Treaty of Tilsit (1804-1807). 

1. Bonaparte Emperor. — Bonaparte had been moving to- 
wards imperialism. It was now within his grasp. The 
Senate, with the popular consent, declared Napoleon Bona- 
parte Emperor of the French, with the title of Napoleon 
I., making the imperial dignity hereditary from male to 
male in the order of primogeniture (May 18, 1804). To 
consecrate his title Bonaparte invited the pope to perform 
the ceremony of coronation at Paris. After much hesita- 
tion the pope finally agreed to ratify what was, after all, 
the will of the French people. 

2. The Coronation. — As the pope passed through France 
the people flocked to welcome him. Napoleon met him 
at Fontainebleau with great show of filial veneration. At 
the instance of Pius VII., and moved by the tears of his 

How is the history of Bonaparte's empire divided? 1. What title was now he- 
stowed on Bonaparte ? How did the title descend ? By whom was Bonaparte 
crowned ? 2. Describe the passage of the pope through France. 



a.d. 1804-1805] Modern History. 519 

wife, Josephine, Napoleon reluctantly consented to have 
the civil contract of marriage ratified by the ceremony of 
the Church. The coronation followed with great pomp and 
splendor in the Church of Notre Dame (December 2, 1804). 

3. War with England. — Napoleon now prepared to in- 
vade England and assembled an immense army at Bou- 
logne. Aided by the Spanish fleet, he decoyed Nelson off 
to the West Indies and the Channel passage was left open. 
But Nelson discovered the snare in time to send back 
warning, and on the return of the French and Spanish 
fleets they were met by Sir Robert Calder. An indecisive 
engagement followed, but the passage of Napoleon's army 
was prevented, and with this ended his scheme of invad- 
ing England. He then resolved on closing all the ports of 
Europe against her (1805). 

4. Third Coalition (1805). — England, seeing danger of 
destruction to her commerce, sought a new alliance with 
Eussia and Sweden. The Emperor of Austria and King 
of Naples were drawn in later. Napoleon, now wholly 
monarchical, converted the republic he had created in 
Italy into a kingdom, with himself as king. He next 
united the Ligurian Republic to the empire. 

5. Europe was alarmed at the ambitious designs of such 
a man. Pitt had returned to the head of affairs in Eng- 
land and set himself the task of destroying Napoleon. He 
promised subsidies to the coalition, and suddenly an Aus- 
trian army of nearly ninety thousand men entered Bava- 
ria, where it awaited reinforcements from Russia. 

6. Napoleon invades Austria; Capitulation of Ulm (1805). 
— Napoleon at once withdrew his army — thenceforth called 
the Grand Army — from Boulogne and launched it upon 
Germany. He reached the Austrians before the arrival of 

To what did Napoleon reluctantly consent 1 What followed? 3. On what did 
Napoleon resolve ? How was the invasion of England prevented 1 4. Describe the 
third coalition. 5. What action did Pitt take ? 6. What did Napoleon do ? 



520 History of the World. [a.d. 1805 

the Kussians. Sending the right wing under Ney to hold 
the Austrians at Ulm, the emperor with the left wing 
crossed the Danube and occupied every road leading from 
Ulm to Vienna. The Austrian forces were slowly drawn 
within an iron circle from which escape was hopeless, and 
their general, Mack, was compelled to capitulate with his 
entire army and munitions of war (October 20, 1805). 

7. Trafalgar. — On the day after this brilliant victory 
Nelson destroyed the combined Spanish and French fleets 
at Trafalgar. The victory was dearly purchased by the 
death of the English admiral, who more than any other 
had helped to cripple the power of Napoleon. England 
was now without a rival on the seas. 

8. Austerlitz. — The capitulation of Ulm left the valley 
of the Danube open to Napoleon, and he marched straight 
on Vienna. Passing through the city and replenishing his 
stores from it, he followed the Austrian forces northward. 
The latter succeeded in effecting a junction with the Rus- 
sians, and the Allies were enabled to oppose a force of 
one hundred thousand men to Napoleon's eighty thousand. 

9. Napoleon feigned retreat and drew them after him 
until he neared Austerlitz, where he had resolved on giv- 
ing battle. A vast plateau commanded the centre of the 
battle-ground, and the Allies, in their confident and eager 
pursuit, had left only a small force to hold this key of 
the situation. Napoleon sent his guard to take it. The 
mistake was seen and the Russian Imperial Guard ordered to 
retake the position. They were met and destroyed by the 
Emperor's Old Guard, and the battle virtually ended. The 
allied emperors took to flight, leaving forty thousand slain or 
prisoners on the field, with their cannon and baggage (Dec. 2). 

10. Treaty of Presburg. — Russia withdrew from the coa- 

Describe the movements against the Austrians. 7. What took place on the 
ocean ? 8. What followed the capitulation of TJhn ? 9. Give an account of the 
battle of Austerlitz. State the loss of the Allies. 



a.d. 1805-1806] Modern History. 521 

lition and the Emperor of Austria sued for peace. As its 
price he was compelled to cede the Venetian states to the 
kingdom of Italy, Istria and Dalmatia to France, and 
the Tyrol and Austrian Suabia to the German princes al- 
lied to France. Thenceforth the Elector of Bavaria and 
the Duke of Wurtemberg each assumed the title of king, 
and the Margrave of Baden that of grand duke. They 
became allied by marriage with Napoleon, whose vassals 
rather than allies they were. The treaty was signed at 
Presburg (December 26, 1805). Trafalgar was forgotten 
in so supreme a triumph, and Pitt died heart-broken, de- 
spairing of his country's future. 

11. The Federated States and grand Fiefs of the Empire. 
— Napoleon now made himself the arbiter of Europe. He 
abolished the dynasty of Naples, compelled the king, Fer- 
dinand IV., to retire to Sicily, and set his own brother 
Joseph on the throne. He next converted Holland into 
a kingdom, which he bestowed on his brother Louis 
(1806). His sisters, his brother-in-law Murat, and seve- 
ral of his marshals and ministers were awarded various 
principalities and fiefs, regardless of the wishes or rights 
of the people over whom they were placed. 

12. Confederation of the Bhine. — He induced the kings 
of Bavaria and Wurtemberg and most of the German 
princes to enter into his new political system. These 
formed the Confederation of the Ehine, with Napoleon as 
Protector, thus separating themselves from the German 
Empire. Francis II. renounced the title of Emperor of 
Germany for that of Emperor of Austria under the name 
of Francis I. And thus, after a duration of one thousand 
and six years, fell the empire founded by Charlemagne 
and reconstituted by Otho the Great (800-1806). 

10. What nation withdrew from the coalition ? How did Austria purchase 
peace? What of the German princes ? What of Pitt? 11. What changes did 
Napoleon make in Europe ? 12. Tell of the Confederation of the Ehine. 



522 History of the World. [a.d. 1806 

13. Fourth Coalition (1806). — Napoleon next took re- 
venge on the Prussians, because their king, Frederick Wil- 
liam III., was about to enter the last coalition when the 
battle of Austerlitz broke it up. He goaded the Prussians 
into war by taking from Frederick various principalities 
and imposing arbitrary conditions upon him. The Prus- 
sians, pushed beyond endurance, formed an alliance with 
England and Eussia and bade Napoleon withdraw his 
troops from Prussian soil. This was the signal for war. 

14. Battle of Jena. — Prussia had a splendid army, but 
it lacked great generals. Napoleon easily outmanoeuvred 
the old Duke of Brunswick, the Prussian commander, 
and cut him off from Berlin. He retreated by way of 
Leipzig, leaving Prince Hohenlohe at Jena to watch the. 
French. Hohenlohe was forced to give battle against 
great odds, and was utterly routed (October 14, 1806). 
The Duke of Brunswick was intercepted at Auerstadt by 
Davoust. The Prussians vastly outnumbered the French 
and a desperate battle ensued. After ten hours' fighting 
the Prussians were thrown into disorder. Brunswick and 
his two successors in command fell, and the Prussian army 
was routed. 

15. Napoleon at Berlin; the Continental Blockade (1806). 
— Napoleon entered Berlin in triumph and divided Prus- 
sia into departments. His measures were extremely harsh 
and engendered a lasting hatred against the French. He 
here published a decree declaring the British Isles to be 
in a state of blockade ; forbidding all commerce or inter- 
course with England ; and commanding that every Eng- 
lishman found on the Continent of Europe should be treat- 
ed as a prisoner of war, and every English vessel sailing 
from an English port to be a fair prize (November, 1806). 

13. Why did Napoleon desire to punish Prussia 1 What coalition resulted ? 
14. What led to the battle of Jena ? Give the result. 15. What was Napoleon's 
gpurse at Berlin 1 Give an account of the Continental blockade. 



a.d. 1806-1807] Modern History. . 523 

England responded by putting all the ports of France and 
of the neighboring countries in a state of blockade. In 
order to enforce his policy on all the Continent Napoleon 
inarched the Grand Army into Eussia. 

16. Napoleon in Poland. — The King of Prussia now re- 
lied solely on the Eussians for protection. Napoleon in- 
vaded Eussia and won the Poles by arming them and giv- 
ing them vague promises of a restoration of their kingdom. 
From Warsaw he marched northwards to where the Eus- 
sian army was encamped on the right of the Vistula. Af- 
ter some indecisive combats he went into winter quarters 
(December 26, 1806). 

17. Battle of Eylau. — Benningsen, the Eussian general, 
under cover of the severe weather, suddenly attacked the 
French camp and gained some advantages. Napoleon 
hastened from Warsaw and furiously pursued the Eussians, 
who retreated as far as Eylau, where they made a stand. 
A most stubborn battle ensued, the victory, if any, being 
with the Eussians (February 8, 1807). Benningsen re- 
fused to follow it up, and still retreated in perfect order. 

18. Battle of FriedUyid (June 14) | Treaty of Tilsit— 
The French returned to winter quarters, where they re- 
pulsed a second attack by Benningsen. Ney pursued the 
Eussians to Friedland, which he took, and inflicted a ter- 
rible defeat on them. Napoleon then marched on Konigs- 
berg, where the King of Prussia had taken refuge, and 
captured it, his marshal, Lefebvre, taking Dantzig after a 
famous siege. The King of Prussia, having no longer an 
asylum in his own dominions, besought the Eussian empe- 
ror to ask an armistice. Alexander, betrayed by England, 
who had sent him no aid, and weary of a wasteful war, 
consented. The two emperors met on a raft in the river 

Why did Napoleon march into Russia ? 16. How were the Poles won 1 Where 
did the French march from Warsaw ? 17. What led to the battle of Eylau 1 Give 
the result. 18. Outline the events which led to the meeting on the raft. 



524 



History of the World. 




a.d. 1807] Modern History. 525 

Niemen and arranged the conditions of peace, which were 
afterwards ratified at Tilsit (July 8, 1807). The King 
of Prussia lost nearly all his states, and the emperors di- 
vided almost all Europe between them, Alexander taking 
the north and Napoleon the west and south. 

SECTION II. The Empire in its Zenith (1807-1812). 

19. Napoleon enforces the Blockade. — England refused 
to accept the peace of Tilsit. Napoleon then made Kus- 
sia and Prussia parties to the Continental blockade and 
attacked all the powers that refused to join in the scheme. 
Denmark was coerced into joining. The English fleet 
bombarded Copenhagen, destroyed the arsenal, and cap- 
tured the Danish fleet. Pomerania and Finland were 
taken from G-ustavusf IV., who refused to join Napo- 
leon. He was compelled to abdicate in favor of his uncle, 
Charles XIII., who, being childless, adopted Napoleon's 
marshal, Bernadotte, as his heir, and hastened to close 
his ports against the English. 

20. Events in Portugal and Spain. — Portugal held to 
England, so Napoleon- sent an army under Junot to oc- 
cupy the kingdom and close its ports. Junot lost most 
of his army of conscripts while marching through Spain, 
but the prestige of the French arms enabled him to oc- 
cupy Lisbon with the remnants (November, 1807). The 
royal house of Braganza set sail for Brazil. 

21. Dissension in Spain. — Napoleon next turned to 
Spain, then ruled by the feeble Charles IV. His minis- 
ter, Godoy, had furnished the emperor with auxiliaries 
after the battle of Jena. He also allowed the French 
troops to pass into Portugal and reinforced Junot. The 
Spanish people revolted against such humiliation and 

State the main features of the peace of Tilsit. 19. What followed England's 
refusal to accept this peace ? 20. What occurred in Portugal ? 21. Give an ac- 
count of affairs in Spain. 



526 History of the World. [a.d. 1808 

turned their affections to Ferdinand, heir to the throne. 
Between the two parties rivalry and dissension sprang up, 
thus affording Napoleon an opportunity for interference. 

22. Murat in Spain (1808). — Under pretence of reinforc- 
ing his army in Portugal Napoleon sent another into Spain 
under command of Murat, at the same time demanding 
the Spanish provinces north of the Ebro. He hoped to 
drive the Spanish royal family to America, as he had 
already driven that of Portugal. A revolt of the people 
prevented their flight. Godoy's palace was sacked and 
Charles compelled to abdicate in favor of his son Ferdi- 
nand (1808). 

23. Joseph Bonaparte proclaimed King of Spain. — Na- 
poleon strove to reinstate Charles, who would have been 
a tool in his hands. Murat induced- both father and son 
to appeal to the arbitration of the emperor. He met 
them at Bayonne, induced them to renounce all their 
titles, and held them as prisoners in France. Murat 
was set on the throne of Naples and Joseph Bonaparte 
called from it to that of Spain. 

24. Spanish Insurrection. — The Spaniards rose in Mad- 
rid and were massacred by Murat. A general insurrec- 
tion in the provinces followed. The people rose as one 
man against the usurping and invading power of the 
mightiest monarch in Europe. An assembly convened at 
Madrid organized for the defence of the country. 

25. The Capitulation at Baylen. — Joseph Bonaparte was 
installed in Madrid by the French troops, who were then 
dispersed into the provinces to put down the insurrec- 
tion. The French vessels at Cadiz were seized by the 
Spaniards. Dupont sacked Cordova. Bands of Spaniards 
followed and harassed him on the march, and finally, sur- 

What enabled Napoleon to interfere 1 22. What led to the abdication of Charles 
IT. ? 23. How was Joseph Bonaparte made King of Spain ? 24. Give an ac- 
count of the Spanish insurrection. 25. What led to the capitulation at Baylen ? 



a.d. 1808-1809] Modern History. 527 

rounding him in the defiles of Baylen, compelled him to 
capitulate. Eighteen thousand French soldiers laid down 
their arms and were made prisoners (July, 1808). 

26. Wellesley in Portugal. — News of this capitulation 
spread through Europe and gaye the first shock to the 
belief in the invincibility of the French arms. An Eng- 
lish force under Sir Arthur Wellesley had landed in Por- 
tugal and compelled Junot to evacuate. Joseph Bona- 
parte abandoned Madrid and asked to return to Naples. 

27. French Reverses. — Saragossa, under the heroic Pala- 
fox, held out against the left wing of the Grand Army. 
The siege cosfc the French some of their best soldiers, 
and the defenders only capitulated when the city was in 
cinders around them (February, 1808). Soult was soon 
after driven from Portugal by the combined forces of the 
Spaniards and the English. Joseph was beaten at Tala- 
vera, and the Allies might have entered Madrid had not 
disputes broken out among them. The English retired 
into Portugal. 

28. Napoleon's Spanish Campaign (1808-1809). — Napo- 
leon himself entered Spain at the head of the Grand Army. 
Defeating the Spaniards at Burgos, he sacked the city 
and marched on Madrid. Madrid capitulated (Decem- 
ber, 1808). Hearing that an English force had crossed 
the Portuguese frontier and threatened his retreat, he 
hastened to meet but missed it. He left the country dis- 
appointed and mortified, bidding his brother Joseph treat 
the Spaniards with severity. 

29. Fifth Coalition (1809); Battle of Eckmiihl.— The 
Spanish troubles encouraged the formation of a new alli- 
ance against France. Austria and England united, and 
three hundred thousand men, under the Archduke Charles, 

26. How was the news of this capitulation received ? What changes quickly 
followed ? 27. Give an account of the French reverses. 28. Outliuc Napoleon's 
Spanish campaign. 29. What new coalition was formed ? What nations united ? 



528 History of the World. [a. d. 1809 

suddenly menaced the French at Katisbon under Da- 
voust. Napoleon marched, to his relief, swept away those 
who opposed him, attacked the archduke at Eckmuhl, 
and drove him across the Danube (April, 1809). Enter- 
ing Austria, he penetrated to Vienna and. followed up the 
archduke, who had destroyed all the bridges of the Danube. 

30. Battle of Essling. — At Lobau, two leagues below 
Vienna, Napoleon attempted to cross. Charles allowed a 
portion to pass over and then fell on them. A desperate 
battle ensued. For thirty hours the French sustained an 
unequal contest. The village of Essling was taken and 
retaken five times. Marshal Lannes with sixteen thou- 
sand men fell, and the remainder, under Massena, suc- 
ceeded in regaining the island of Lobau (May, 1809). 

31. Battle of Wagram; Treaty of Vienna. — The battle 
of Essling, as a sequel to the Spanish campaign, produced 
a great effect on Europe, and Napoleon's star began to 
wane. He felt that a desperate effort was needed to re- 
store his lost prestige, and he made it. Summoning vast 
reinforcements to his aid, he succeeded in transporting his 
entire army across the Danube. Following Charles, he 
came up with him on the plain commanded by the heights 
of "Wagram. After a terrible battle, in which the French 
suffered severely, Charles was compelled to retreat with a 
loss of thirty thousand men. Both sides were now anxious 
for peace, and it was signed at Vienna. Carinthia, Istria, 
and Friuli were ceded to France, and a portion of G-alicia 
to Russia and Saxony, the French allies. As a last humi- 
liation Napoleon compelled the emperor to destroy the 
walls of Vienna. ■ 

32. The States of the Church (1809).— Napoleon had 
constant quarrels with the pope, Pius VII. He now 

Where was the archduke defeated ? Towards what town did Napoleon move 1 
30. Describe the battle of Essling. 31. What led to the battle of Wagram ? What 
was the result ? What were the terms of the treaty of Vienna ? 



a.d. 1809-1811] Modern History. • 529 

wished liim to annul the marriage of Jerome with Miss 
Patterson. There were also disputes about ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction. The poj)e being invincible in matters touch- 
ing the rights of the Church, Napoleon sent an army into 
the Papal States and confiscated the duchies of Benevento 
and Pontecoryo. The pope refusing to acknowledge Joseph 
Bonaparte as king of Naples and to adhere to the Con- 
tinental blockade, General Miollis was ordered to occupy 
Eome and keep the pope a prisoner in his own capital 
(1808). In the following year Napoleon decreed the 
suppression of the pope's temporal power and annexed 
the States of the Church to the French Empire (May 17, 
1809). The Holy Father was carried a prisoner into 
France and confined at Fontainebleau. 

33. The War in Spain (1810-1811).— The peace with 
Austria gave reinforcements to Joseph, who thought to 
secure himself in Spain. Granada, Cordova, and Seville 
fell, but the Spaniards were indomitable. Cadiz held out 
and was made the headquarters of the Junta, which had 
taken the cause of independence in its hands. The whole 
country was in revolt and the French found an active 
enemy in every Spaniard. 

34. Portugal: Wellington at Torres Vedras. — Sir Ar- 
thur Wellesley, now Lord Wellington, was in Portugal at 
the head of an English force. Massena was sent against 
him and Wellington slowly retreated, leaving a desert be- 
hind him. He halted before Lisbon and fortified himself 
at Torres Vedras, where for six months, with greatly infe- 
rior forces, he defied all the efforts of Massena to dislodge 
him. Massena was at last compelled to retreat (1811). 

35. Wellington's Victories in Spain. — Wellington, having 
worn out the patience and resources of Massena, now pushed 

32. What caused quarrels between Napoleon and the pope ? Give an account 
of the events ending with the imprisonment of the pope. 33. State the condi- 
tion of affairs in Spain. 34. What took place at Torres Vedras 1 Who retreated ? 



530 History of the World. [ a .d. 1811 

forward slowly into Spain. He took Badajoz by storm, 
defeated Marmont at Salamanca and captured the city, 
took Valladolid, and finally entered Madrid amid the trans- 
ports of the people. Spain now, with the aid of the Eng- 
lish, held in check three hundred thousand of Napoleon's 
troops. 

36. Napoleon and Marie Louise. — Meanwhile the empe- 
ror, exalted with his victory at Wagram, only thought of 
still further extending his empire and enforcing the block- 
ade on all Europe. After the peace of Vienna he repudi- 
ated Josephine and sought Marie Louise, the daughter of 
the Emperor of Austria, in marriage. As the pope refused 
to annul the marriage with Josephine, an ecclesiastical 
commission under Cardinal Fesch, Napoleon's uncle, was 
got together to annul it without either authority or sanc- 
tion. The emperor was then married to Marie Louise 
(April 2, 1810), and a child was born (March 20, 1811), 
to whom was given the title of King of Eome. 

37. Discontent in Prance. — At the close of 1810 the 
French Empire extended from Gaeta to the Baltic and 
from the ocean to the St. G-otbard. But its strength was 
more showy than real. The subject peoples hated the 
French. France itself was weary of war and exhausted. 
The murder of the Duke d'Enghien, the captivity of Pius 
VIL, the repudiation of Josephine, and the spoliation of 
the Spanish Bourbons were all unpopular acts, and so 
many causes of deepening discontent. Finally, the Conti- 
nental blockade was a grave injury to commerce and re- 
acted on France and all Europe as much as it affected 
England. At last Eussia refused to close her ports any 
longer, and this was the signal for renewed strife. 

35. What was Wellington's next move ? Give an account of his progress to 
Madrid. 36. How did the victory of Wagram affect Napoleon? What did he 
do 1 How was his marriage annulled ? 37. Outline affairs at close of 1810. 



a.d. 1812] Modern History. 531 

SEGTION III. Decadence and Fall of the Empire (1812-1814). 

38. Napoleon again invades Russia (1812). — Napoleon 
assembled the German princes at Dresden, and, uniting 
their forces with his own, crossed the Memen (June 12, 
1812) at the head of four hundred and twenty thousand 
men. He again aroused the enthusiasm of the Poles, who 
nocked to him. The czar, avoiding all general actions, re- 
treated before him, leaving a desert for the French to pass 
through. 

39. Battle of Borodino (September 7, 1812) ; Napoleon 
at Moscow. — Napoleon followed, plunging deeper into the 
desert. Smolensk was stubbornly defended, and when no 
longer tenable was fired by tbe Russians (August, 1812). 
"Winter was approaching, but the emperor, hearing that 
other wings of his army had met with success, pushed 
on for Moscow, where he determined to winter. 

40. At Borodino, within sixty miles of the city, the 
Russians made a stand under their general, Barclay de 
Tolly. A most bloody battle ensued. It cost the Rus- 
sians sixty thousand killed or wounded and the French 
thirty thousand. The Russians retreated and were fol- 
lowed into Moscow by the French (September 14, 1812). 
The night after their entry the city was fired in all quar- 
ters and they were compelled to evacuate. There was no- 
thing left but to march back (October 18, 1812). 

41. Retreat from Moscow. — All along the march they 
were harassed by the Russians, who compelled them to 
take the long route over the desert to Smolensk. Sol- 
diers and horses fell by the way and perished of cold and 
hunger. When the Dnieper was reached there were scarce- 
ly fifty thousand left of the splendid army of one hundred 
and twenty thousand men at whose head Napoleon set 

38. Describe the invading forces. What plan did the czar follow ? 39. What 
influenced Napoleon to winter at Moscow 1 40 Give an account of the battle of 
Borodino. What followed the entry into Moscow ? 41. Describe tho retreat. 



532 History of the World. [a.d. 1813 

out for Moscow, and of these not more than twenty thou- 
sand fit to fight. 

42. At the Beresina they were joined by the army of 
reserve which had been repulsed from the Dwina. Disas- 
ter followed disaster. Napoleon hastened on to Paris to 
levy a new army against a new coalition. 

43. Sixth Coalition against Napoleon. — Prussia, Eussia, 
Sweden, and England were the allies. They drove the 
French before them to the Elbe. Napoleon advanced and 
beat them at Lutzen (May 2, 1813), and again at Baut- 
zen (May 20 and 21), pursuing them into Silesia. He 
here learned that his brother Joseph had been beaten by 
Wellington at Vitoria. Vitoria was followed by other vic- 
tories and Joseph was driven from Spain. News of Wel- 
lington's success gave fresh strength to the coalition. 

44. Dresden (August, 1813). — At Austria's instance Na- 
poleon agreed to an armistice; but, as he rejected the ad- 
vantageous offers, Austria joined the coalition, and more 
than a million men were now opposed to Napoleon. Three 
armies, under Schwarzenberg, Blucher, and Bernadotte (who 
had deserted the emperor), marched against the French. 
Napoleon was at Dresden, advancing against Blucher, who 
was in Silesia. Blucher retired. Schwarzenberg came upon 
Dresden and had occupied a suburb when Napoleon re- 
turned and gave battle. The Austrians were defeated and 
driven into Bohemia. 

45. Leipzig. — But Blucher and Bernadotte beat Napo- 
leon's lieutenants and closed . around Dresden. The em- 
peror retreated to Leipzig, where he learned that the King 
of Bavaria had deserted him and that Westphalia was in 
revolt against his brother Lucien. A three days' battle en- 
sued at Leipzig. On the third clay the Saxons deserted 

42. Eo¥ did the campaign end ? 43. Describe the sixth coalition against Na- 
poleon. Tell of Wellington's Tictories in Spain. 44. What was the condition 
of affairs in August, 1813 ? 45. . State the progress of events ending at Leipzig. 



a.d. 1818-1814] Modern History. 533 

and Napoleon met with a disastrous defeat (October, 
1813). 

46. The Allies invade France (1813).— The Allies pur- 
sued the French across the Ehine and droye them towards 
Paris. All the subjugated peoples rose up against the 
French. Wellington had freed Spain and stood ready to 
invade France from the south with an army of one hun- 
dred thousand men. Napoleon tried to gain time by ne- 
gotiation. Pius VII. was sent back to Rome, Ferdinand 
VII. to Spain. New levies were hastily raised and turned 
against his pursuers. 

47. Brienne and La Rothiere (1814).— On the 25th of 
January, 1814, Napoleon set out from Paris. He met 
Blucher at Brienne and beat him, but Blucher fell back 
on Schwarzenberg. They beat Napoleon at La Rothiere, 
his raw levies being unable to withstand their vastly su- 
perior numbers and disciplined force. They then divided, 
one army holding Napoleon in check on the Marne, while 
the other marched along the Seine to Paris. 

48. Brilliant Generalship of Napoleon. — Napoleon's gene- 
ralship never showed itself more supreme than at this cri- 
sis. Suddenly leaving Schwarzenberg, he fell on Blucher 
and in five days inflicted four defeats on him, scattering 
his army along the Marne. Schwarzenberg was pursuing 
his victorious route to the capital. Crossing hastily to the 
Seine, he treated the Russian and Austrian forces much as 
he had treated the Prussians, and on February 18 drove 
Schwarzenberg from Montereau. The Allies asked an ar- 
mistice and proposed peace on favorable enough terms to 
Napoleon ; but, carried away by his brief success, he would 
not listen to the terms, and the Allies, at the treaty 
of Ohaumont (March 1), pledged themselves to push 

What -was the result of the battle ? 46. What followed ? How did Napoleon 
attempt to gain time ? 47, Describe the movements of Blucher and Schwarz- 
enberg. 48. Tell how Napoleon defeated the two armies. What followed? 



534 History of the World. [a.d. 1814-1815 

the war to an end and enforce their OTvn conditions on 
France. 

49. The Allies enter Paris. — Blucher, who had recruited 
his forces, was again driven back, but Schwarzenberg was 
making steady headway. Wellington had entered France 
and was hastening northward with his army. The royal- 
ists were active in Paris. Murat, to save his crown, had 
declared war against France. Napoleon vainly attempted 
a levy en masse, and Schwarzenberg, eluding him, entered 
Paris (March 31, 1814). 

50. Hapoleon abdicates. — Next day the municipality of 
Paris renounced obedience to Napoleon and recalled Louis 
XVIII. On the following day the senate renounced him. 
Napoleon, at Fontainebleau, proposed to abdicate in favor 
of his son, still hoping for time. His marshals refused to 
follow him, and he gave in his absolute abdication. The 
title of emperor was left him and the island of Elba as- 
signed him for territory, with a revenue of two millions 
and a guard of four hundred men. 

51. The Restoration (1814). — Louis XVIII. entered Paris 
(May 3, 1814) amid the acclamations of the populace. He 
made a treaty with the allied sovereigns which was very- 
favorable to France under the circumstances. A congress 
met at Vienna to rearrange the map of Europe, which Na- 
poleon's campaigns had ploughed up. Louis' ministers 
drew up a new constitution for France. 

52. The Hundred Days (March to June, 1815).— Napo- 
leon in Elba kept up a brisk correspondence with his 
adherents in France, and a conspiracy was formed for 
his restoration. Escaping from Elba, he suddenly landed 
in France. His soldiers nocked to him. Ney, who swore 
to bring him back to Paris in an iron cage, passed over his 

49. How did the Allies succeed in entering Paris ? 50. State what preceded 
the abdication of Napoleon. 51. Who became king ? What is said of the treaty 
made with the Allies ? 52. Give an account of Napoleon's escape from Elba. 



a.d. 1815] Modern History. 535 

command to Mm. All the forces sent to oppose him de- 
clared for the emperor. Louis fled, and on March 20 Na- 
poleon again entered Paris. 

53. The news of his return disturbed the Congress of 
Vienna. Again all Europe was leagued against France 
and Napoleon placed under the ban of nations. More than 
a million men turned towards the French frontier, and 
the Allies refused eyen to negotiate with Napoleon. The 
Vendeans took up arms against him, and the royalists 
were active in the interior. 

54. Ligny; Quatre-Bras. — At the head of one hundred 
and twenty thousand men Napoleon crossed the Sambre, 
hoping to surprise Blticher and separate him from tho 
English. He defeated him at Ligny after an obstinate 
battle. On the following day Ney attacked the English at 
Quatre-Bras, but failed to dislodge them. During the 
night Wellington abandoned his position for a stronger 
one at Mont St. Jean, near the village of Waterloo, which 
commanded the road to Brussels. There the decisive bat- 
tle was fought. 

55. Battle of Waterloo (June 18, 1815). — The armies were 
about equal in. numbers, and by noon victory seemed to de- 
clare for the French. Napoleon was looking for Gronchy 
with reinforcements, and Wellington as anxiously for Blti- 
cher. Bliicher arrived, but not Grouchy, and Napoleon 
met his last defeat. His Old Guard was almost annihi- 
lated in a final charge at the plateau of Mont St. Jean. 

56. St. Helena. — The Allies gave him no time to recruit, 
but pushed on straight for Paris. Napoleon was deserted, 
and again abdicated in favor of his son, whom he pro- 
claimed emperor under the title of Napoleon II. (June 
22, 1815). He then resolved on setting sail for the United 

53. What action did the Allies take 1 54. Describe the opening of the cam- 
paign. Where did Wellington take his stand 1 ? 55. Describe the battle of 
Waterloo. 56. What befeU Napoleon ? 



536 History of the World. [a.d. 1815 

States, but, despairing of escaping the English cruisers, 
surrendered to Captain Maitland, of the British ship 
Bellerophon. He was banished to the barren island of 
St. Helena, where he died (May 5, 1821), after endur- 
ing much harsh treatment from the governor, Sir Hud- 
son Lowe. 

57. Second Treaty of Paris (1815).— The Allies were 
no longer disposed to be lenient with France. Welling- 
ton and Blucher entered Paris as conquerors. The rem- 
nants of the Trench army were compelled to lay down 
their arms and retire beyond the Loire. Louis XVIII. 
was restored. Important posts on the frontiers had to 
be surrendered. The north of France was placed under 
foreign occupation for five years. An indemnity of over 
a milliard francs was exacted, and the plundered treasures 
of foreign nations were restored. 

58. Rearrangement of the European States. — This sec- 
ond treaty of Paris (November 20, 1815) and the Con- 
gress of Vienna form what are called the treaties of 1815. 
The limits and possessions of the different states of Eu- 
roj)e were determined to the advantage of the allied 
powers. England secured various points of great stra- 
tegic and maritime importance. Eussia added most of 
the Grand Duchy of Warsaw to her vast domains. Aus- 
tria recovered all she had lost, save Belgium, in return 
for which she got the Venetian states. Prussia was re- 
stored and enlarged. Belgium and Holland were erected 
into the kingdom of the Netherlands for the benefit of 
the house of Orange. Pope Pius VII. and the kings of 
Spain, Portugal, and Naples recovered their states. Mu- 
rat, who had joined Napoleon during the Hundred Days, 
fell in a desperate effort to regain his throne. Ney was 

How was Napoleon treated at St. Helena? 57. What conditions were im- 
posed on France 1 58. How did the Congress of Vienna affect Europe ? Give a 
general sketch of the arrangements made. 



a.d. 1760-1778] Modern History. 537 

condemned for treason and shot. All Napoleon's relatives 
were exiled. To Marie Louise was given the duchies of 
Parma and Piacenza. 



SECTION IV. Great Britain and Ireland. 

59. George III. (1760-1820).— George II., dying child- 
less, was succeeded by his grandson, George III., the first 
monarch of the line born in England. To his obstinacy 
and lack of intelligence was greatly due the loss of the 
American colonies. 

60. The Reform Agitation in England. — At the close 
of the Napoleonic wars Great Britain had a population of 
twenty millions. The legislation was very defective, the 
people were severely taxed to sustain the wars, and edu- 
cation was very backward. The representation of the 
people in the government was more nominal than real, 
and an agitation for reform set in which for a long time 
met with severe opposition from the government. 

61. The outbreak of the French Eevolution, and the ex- 
cesses resulting from it, for a time stopped the progress 
of reform in England. With the downfall of Napoleon 
came peace, and with peace reaction after a long strain. 
Agitation again set in with bad harvests and trying times. 
The king's mind became enfeebled. Liberty of the press, 
of public meeting and public discussion, was prohibited. 

62. Condition of the Catholics in Great Britain and Ire- 
land. — The cruel penal laws against the Catholics were in 
full force during this reign. In 1778 a few concessions 
were made and provoked outbreaks among the Protestants 
in England and Scotland. Lord George Gordon set himself 
at the head of the Anti- Catholic Association that in 1780 

59. What was the character of George III. 1 60. Describe the condition of 
Great Britain at the close of the Napoleonic wars. 61. What hindered the agita- 
tion for reform ? 62. Describe the condition of Catholics at this time. 



538 History of the World. [a.d. 1778-1782 

sacked the churches and houses of Catholics in London. 
Riots ensued which had to be put down by the military. 

63. In Ireland there was little change, the Catholics re- 
maining still a subject body with practically no legal 
rights. The severity of the land laws drove the people 
into secret organizations, the chief of which was known 
as the White Boys, who, under deep provocation, com- 
mitted many outrages. 

64. Gradually the anti-Catholic laws relaxed somewhat 
in their observance. In 1771 Catholics in Ireland were 
allowed a few concessions in the matter of acquiring pro- 
perty. At the outbreak of the American Eevolution a 
few more concessions were granted ; and when France 
recognized the independence of the colonies a bill for 
the partial relief of Catholics was passed by which priests 
and schoolmasters were no longer subject to persecution. 

65. The Irish Parliament (1782).— Public feeling be- 
gan to be aroused in Ireland. Henry Grattan set the 
cry going for legislative independence and a native par- 
liament to transact Irish affairs (1780). An armed or- 
ganization, known as the Irish Volunteers, had been 
raised to defend the coasts from privateers. It speedily 
attained to immense proportions and supported Grat- 
tan's cry. The demand was acceded to, and an Irish Par- 
liament assembled in Dublin (1782). 

66. England destroys Irish Industries. — Commercial dis- 
abilities and other grievances of a foreign domination being 
removed, the country made rapid advances on the road 
to prosperity (1782-1800). Within eight years the popu- 
lation had increased from three to five millions. Eng- 
lish traders and manufacturers grew alarmed at this pros- 
perity and resented the removal of the Irish disabilities. 

63. Why were the Irish, driven into secret organizations ? 64. How did re- 
lief come to Ireland ? 65. What did Grattan urge, and how was he siipported 1 
60. What feeling arose in England ? 



a.d. 1782-1798] Modern History. w 539 

Ireland was becoming a dangerous commercial rival, and 
it was resolved to destroy its power in this respect. The 
Irish executive lent itself to the scheme and was bought 
over by the English government. 

67. The United Irishmen. — The Catholics still labored 
under grave disabilities. An agitation for the removal of 
these was set on foot in 1791, Catholics and Protestants for 
once working together. This led to the formation of the 
organization of United Irishmen. The Irish Parliament, 
composed entirely of Protestants, rejected the petition for 
redress of Catholic grievances, though George III. was 
willing to remove some of them. 

68. Rebellion in Ireland (1798).— The United Irish- 
men now turned for aid to the Trench Kepublic and en- 
tered into negotiations with it. The English government 
was fully informed of the matter, but took no steps to stop 
the movement. A French fleet with troops under General 
Hoche arrived in Bantry Bay (1796), but, finding no pre- 
parations for a rising, returned. English troops, com- 
posed in great part of hired Hessians, were then quartered 
on the people, and committed such atrocities that an in- 
surrection broke out in a few counties (1798). Lord Ed- 
ward Eitzgerald, a member of the house of Leinster, was 
one of the leaders. He was captured, and only saved from 
execution by dying in prison of his wounds. 

69. After obtaining some success the insurrection was 
crushed at Vinegar Hill (June 21, 1798). Soon after a 
small French force arrived under General Humbert, but 
was compelled to surrender to Lord Cornwallis. The 
French were treated as prisoners of war, but merciless 
cruelty was displayed towards the Irish till the proclama- 
tion of an amnesty. 

67. Who were the United Irishmen 1 How did the Irish Parliament act 1 68. 
To whom did the United Irishmen look for aid ? Describe the Irish insurrection 
of 1798. 69. What occurred at Vinegar Hill and subsequently 1 



540 History of the World. [a.d. 1789-1799 

70. The Act of Union.— In 1800 the Act of Union be- 
tween England and Ireland was passed, and went into 
operation January 1, 1801. By it the Irish Parliament 
ceased to exist, and the two countries were henceforth 
known as "the United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
Ireland." The Irish members sold out their indepen- 
dence. In 1803 another abortive rising took place, re- 
sulting in the execution of its brilliant young leader, 
Eobert Emmet. 

SECTION V. The American Union. 

71. Formation of the Union (1789). — At the close of the 
war the independent States of North America were gov- 
erned by the "Articles of Confederation" proposed by 
Congress at the time of the Declaration of Independence. 
These were soon found to be insufficient, and a conven- 
tion, under the presidency of General Washington, met at 
Philadelphia to revise the Articles (May, 1787). A new 
Constitution was drawn up and the old Confederation 
yielded to the union of the States (March 4, 1789). 

72. The first President. — Washington was chosen Presi- 
dent and John Adams Vice-President. Political parties 
had now arisen and divided themselves into Federalists, 
who favored a strong central government, and Anti-Eede- 
ralists, who insisted on the independent authority of the 
States within the Union. Washington headed the Federal- 
ists, and Thomas Jefferson the others. Washington, after 
serving two successive terms of the Presidency, refused to 
allow his name to be used again as a candidate, and bade 
a solemn farewell to his countrymen (September, 1796). 
He thenceforth retired into private life, and died at Mount 
Vernon, December 14, 1799. 

70. What was the Act of Union ? What of Eobert Emmet ? 71. What changes 
were made in the Constitution of the North American States ? 72. Who were 
first President and Vice-President of the Union ? What parties arose 1 



a.d. 1799-1812] Modern History. 541 

73. The Catholic Church in the United States. — At the 

time of the Kevolution there were very few Catholic 
churches and comparatively few Catholics in the United 
States. The first see was erected in Maryland under Bishop 
Carroll, brother of Charles Carroll of Carrollton, one of 
the signers of the Declaration of Independence. The pre- 
judices of the Old World were rife in the New, and it 
was some time before complete religious liberty was se- 
cured to Catholics in the United States. At the first na- 
tional census (1790) it was estimated by Bishop Carroll 
that the Catholics numbered thirty thousand, or one per 
cent, of the population. Eeligious persecutions on the 
other side drove many priests and nuns to the soil of the 
new republic, and Catholic churches, communities, and 
educational establishments began to spread over the land. 

74. War with France. — John Adams succeeded Wash- 
ington in the Presidency (1796). Troubles broke out with 
the French Directory, and war was proclaimed. The ex- 
ploits of the American fleet under Commodore Barry raised 
the republic in repute with foreign powers. Bonaparte, 
on attaining power, put an end to the war by concluding 
a treaty of peace (September 30, 1803). In this same year 
he sold the territory of Louisiana to the United States for 
fifteen millions of dollars, one-quarter of which was to be 
paid back as indemnity. In 1801 war was declared against 
the piratical states of Barbary, and again the naval prow- 
ess of Americans was conspicuously displayed. The beys 
of Tripoli and Tunis were compelled to sue for peace, 
which was signed in 1805. 

75. War with England (1812-1815).— Americans suf- 
fered severely from the Continental blockade, which Eng- 
land insisted on maintaining in America. This finally led 

73. Where and under -whom was the first Catholic see erected in the United 
States ? Sketch the growth of Catholicity. 74, Who succeeded "Washington ? 
What war arose ? How did the war end 1 What of Baxbary- ? 



542 History of the World. [a.d. 1812-1815 

to a declaration of war against England (June 19, 1812). 
The beginning of the war was disastrous to the Americans 
on land; but at sea they coyered themselves with glory, 
utterly destroying the belief in the invincibility of Eng- 
land on her favorite element. In August, 1814, Washing- 
ton, the capital, was captured by General Ross, who com- 
mitted acts of great barbarity. This was compensated for 
by the victory of General Jackson at New Orleans over a 
British army of veterans under Sir Edward Pakenham, in 
which the latter was killed. The war ended in 1815. 

75. How came the United States to declare "war against England 1 How did 
the war open, on land and sea ? What occurred at Washington ? What at 
New Orleans 1 When did the war end ? 



SIXTH EPOCH (1815-1848). 

FROM THE PEACE OF PARIS TO THE GENERAL POPULAR RISING 
IN 1848— THIRTY-THREE YEARS. 

The nineteenth, century witnessed the struggle of the peoples of Europe to 
attain to a share in the government. The first half of the century is chiefly 
occupied with this conflict. In France occurred a series of revolutions re- 
sulting in the erection of a new empire under Napoleon III. That empire 
was in turn overthrown and a new republic established. The rivalry be- 
tween Austria and Prussia led to the predominance of the latter and the 
erection of a new German Empire under Prussia's leadership. Revolutions 
in Italy brought about the destruction of the various principalities, includ- 
ing the States of the Church, and the formation of the kingdom of Italy. 
The Turkish power continued to decline, and that of Russia, with occasional 
reverses, to advance. The United States of America sustained a terrible civil 
conflict, and then moved up to the front among the Powers of the world. 
The century was also marked by a wonderful advance in commerce and in- 
dustry, favored by remarkable discoveries in the use and application of steam 
and electricity. 



CHAPTEE I. 
THE STATE OF FRANCE. 

SECTION I. France after tne Fall of Napoleon. 

1. Louis XVIII. (1815-1824).— After the fall of Napo- 
leon France was left in a terrible condition. She had no 
army or navy, her treasury was empty, her trade and ■ com- 
merce destroyed, her soil in the hands of an enemy she 
had to support. The national pride that once gloried in 

What struggle took place in the nineteenth century? What occurred in 
France? In Germany? In Italy? In Russia and Turkey? In the United 
States ? For what else is the century remarkable ? 

543 



544 History of the World. [a.d. 1815-1830 

the exploits of Napoleon now changed to a deep hatred, 
and the aged Louis XVIII. was welcomed back with every 
demonstration of affection and loyalty. 

2. France again prosperous. — This outburst of loyalty 
soon gave way to faction and discontent. There were 
some risings that were quenched in blood. Nevertheless 
the country prospered and was in a rapid way towards 
recovery. In 1818 a congress of the powers assembled 
at Aix-la-Chapelle and agreed to withdraw the army of 
occupation from France. A powerful French army and 
navy were soon organized, and the old king died leaving 
the country in an advanced state of prosperity (1824). 
He was succeeded by his brother Charles, a man of sixty 
years. 

3. Charles X. (1824-1830). — Charles began his reign by 
removing the restrictive measures found necessary during 
the preceding reign. He settled the question between the 
returned emigres and those who were in possession of their 
estates by a moneyed indemnity to the dispossessed. Al- 
giers was conquered during his reign (July 5, 1830) and 
its pirates scattered. But the spirit of revolt deepened at 
home. The king was obliged to resume restrictive mea- 
sures. He dissolved the Chamber in 1828, and a more 
radical representation was returned. 

SECTION II. Tlie Revolution of 1830. 

4. The King exiled. — Under the advice of Prince Po- 
lignac, the chief minister, the king increased his restric- 
tive measures and dissolved the new Chamber even be- 
fore it had assembled (July 25, 1830). Paris rose, the 
royal troops were vanquished and the king driven into 
exile. 

1. How stood France after the fall of Napoleon % 2. What followed the recall 
of Louis XVIII. 1 What was decided at Aix-la-Chapelle? Who succeeded 
Louis ? 3. Sketch the reign of Charles X. 4. What became of Charles X. 1 



a.d. 1830-1840] Modern History. 545 

5. Louis Philippe (1830-1848).— Louis Philippe, Duke 
of Orleans, sou of Philippe Egalite, was chosen "King of 
the French," and the French professed to be yery proud 
of their " Citizen-King." But they soon tired of his grasp- 
ing spirit and stingy ways. An attempt on his life by Fies- 
chi, a member of the secret societies, restored him to popu- 
lar favor. 

6. War in Algeria. — The war in Algeria, begun in the 
reign of Charles, continued. The Arab tribes, under their 
daring and capable chief, Abd-el-Kader, fought desperately 
for independence. But the victory of the Isly (1844) was 
a death-blow to their hopes, and three years later Abd-el- 
Kader surrendered to General Lamoriciere. Algeria was 
converted into a French province. 

7. The Ashes of Napoleon. — In 1840 Thiers, then prime 
minister, asked permission from the British government 
to restore to France the remains of the dead Emperor 
Napoleon. The request was granted. All the past was 
forgotten as the funeral procession passed through the 
streets of Paris, the king and his court assisting at the 
ceremony. All France mourned a dead hero, and the 
Bonapartists, never idle, renewed their activity. Louis 
Napoleon, nephew of the emperor, landed at Boulogne 
and attempted a rising. It proved abortive. He was ar- 
rested, thrown into prison, and then banished. 

8. Causes of Discontent. — Still, the French people, espe- 
cially the small farmers and working classes, were discon- 
tented, and riots occurred, which were put down by the 
military. The army was very large and the national ex- 
penditure enormous. Taxation was grievous, yet the king 
and his relatives continued to grow rich. A cry for re- 
form arose, which the king resisted. The crops failed in 

5. Who was now chosen king? What was Louis Philippe's character? 
6. What occurred in Algeria? 7. What memorable event occurred in 1840? 
8. Why were the French discontented? 



546 History of the World. [a.d. 1820-1829 

1846 and 1847. Corruption in the government was shown, 
but still the king and his minister, Guizot, resisted reform. 
The country was ripe for revolt. 



CHAPTER II. 

CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION AND REFORM IN GREAT 
BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 

In spite of a vigorous opposition from the Tory party many needed changes 
were made in the franchise, some Catholic disabilities were removed, and 
improvements made in the condition of the English people. Ireland was still 
treated with shameful neglect. 

SECTION I. George IV. (1820-1830). 

1. Struggle for Reform. — The reign of George IV. is 
chiefly remarkable for the king's immoralities and the 
struggle for reform, of which Lord John Russell made 
himself the champion. He also attempted, though with- 
out success, to lighten some of the burdens that still 
pressed heavily on the Catholics. 

2. O'Connell. — A Catholic Association was formed in Ire- 
land with the purpose of bringing public opinion to bear 
on the government. Its chief leader was Daniel O'Con- 
nell, a young Irish lawyer of remarkable ability and cour- 
age. The government tried to suppress the Association, 
but O'Connell's legal skill enabled them to evade the law. 
A Catholic could not at this time become a member of the 
House of Commons. To bring matters to an issue O'Con- 
nell stood for Clare and was elected. On entering Par- 
liament he boldly refused to take the Test Oath enacted in 
the reign of Charles II. He was sent back only to be re- 

1. For what is the reign of George IV. remarkable ? What of Lord John Rus- 
sell 1 2. What was the Irish Catholic Association ? Who led the Association ? 
What action did O'Connell take 1 



a.d. 1829-1845] Modern History. 547 

elected ; and the Duke of Wellington, then premier, reluc- 
tantly advised the king to yield. 

3. Catholic Emancipation. — Amid intense public excite- 
ment and displays of popular bigotry the bill to remove 
Catholic disabilities was passed and received the royal 
sanction (April 13, 1829). This is known as Catholic 
Emancipation. 

SECTION II. The Political Struggle in Great Britain. 

4. The struggle for Catholic emancipation in Ireland was 
coincident with that for reform in England. The repre- 
sentation of the people in Parliament was wretchedly de- 
fective, and many of the laws were a disgrace to a civil- 
ized people. 

5. William IV. (1830-1837) ; the Reform Bill ; Victoria. 
— George IV. died in 1830 and was succeeded by his bro- 
ther, William, Duke of Clarence. In March, 1831, Lord 
John Eussell introduced a Eeform Bill, which aimed at dis- 
franchising a large number of corrupt boroughs and en- 
franchising important towns that were unrepresented. 
After a struggle that approached a revolution it was final- 
ly passed and received the royal assent on June 7, 1832. 
Similar bills for Ireland and Scotland followed, and on 
August 1, 1834, Lord Stanley's act for abolishing slavery 
in the British Colonies came into operation. The king 
died in 1837 without issue, and was succeeded by his 
niece, the Princess Victoria, who three years later was mar- 
ried to her cousin, Albert Edward, Prince of Saxe-Coburg- 
Cotha. 

6. Famine in Ireland (1845-1847). — Irish commerce and 
trade having been destroyed to satisfy English merchants, 
the mass of the people were thrown back on the land for 

3. What is Catholic Emancipation ? 4. What struggle was going on in Eng- 
land 1 5. Who succeeded George IV. ? What of the Eeform Bill ? What went 
into effect August 1, 1834 ? Who succeeded William IV. ? 



548 History of the World. [a.d. 1845-1847 

a living, the potato being the staple article of food. In 
1845 occurred a partial failure of the crop, which grew to 
fearful proportions in 1846. The government had been 
warned of what was impending, but failed to make any- 
thing approaching an adequate attempt at prevention or 
relief. A terrible famine, that devastated and depleted the 
country, ensued. Those who could left the country and 
embarked for the United States and Canada. Between 
starvation and emigration Ireland lost during this period 
more than two millions of her population. 



CHAPTEE III. 
EEFORM ON THE CONTINENT OF EUROPE. 

In the German and Italian states the arbitrary and despotic rule of the 
monarehs provoked grave discontent among the people and indirectly en- 
couraged the formation of secret societies. The rivalry between Austria and 
Prussia grew more marked. 

SECTION I. Popular Discontent. 

1. Broken Promises. — In other countries of Europe, less 
even than in England, was there anything like real repre- 
sentative government. The people had endured all the 
hardships of the long wars brought on in great measure 
by the ambitions or rivalries of monarehs and statesmen. 
They began to demand liberties in return. To rouse their 
people against Napoleon the German princes had promised 
reform. When Napoleon fell they forgot their promises. 

2. German Confederation. — Europe, particularly Ger- 
many, had been torn up by Napoleon and the order of 
states disarranged. At the Congress of Vienna the thirty- 

6. What caused the famine in Ireland? How did the government provide 
against the famine ? What was Ireland's loss ? 1. What disturbance was 
spreading over Europe ? How did the rulers meet it ? 



a.d. 1846-1848] Modern History. 549 

seven Germanic states were re-formed into one Confedera- 
tion, with Austria at the head. It comprised thirty mil- 
lions of people and an army of three hundred thousand 
men. It was represented in a diet that met at Frankfort. 
, 3. Prussia and Reform. — The people in some of the 
smaller German states, such as Hanover and Wiirtemberg, 
were strong enough to wrest the promised reform from 
their rulers. The Prussian government set its face against 
extending the liberties of the people, and suppressed the 
newspapers that agitated the question. To guard against 
the extension of those liberties the diet adopted measures 
that prevented the smaller states from granting constitu- 
tions. 

4. Growth of Secret Societies. — This repression gave 
strength to the secret societies that had gradually been 
growing up in Europe, and whose object was the over- 
throw of all existing governments and the establishment 
of a new and unchristian social order. They had much to 
do with the French Eevolution, but found a ruthless ene- 
my in Napoleon. "With his fall from power they renewed 
their activity and availed themselves of the general discon- 
tent to make many proselytes. Their purposes were op- 
posed and denounced by a succession of Eoman pontiffs, 
and both rulers and people warned against their doctrines 
and practices. This explains their unalterable enmity to 
the Holy See. 

5. Repressive Measures in Germany. — They were espe- 
cially active in France, Spain, and Naples, and the Ger- 
man princes took alarm at their growth. To guard against 
their entrance into Germany the diet renewed and in- 
creased its measures of repression to a ridiculous extent, 
while the governments steadfastly refused all petitions for 

2. What was the German Confederation ? 3. How fared matters in the Ger- 
man states 1 4. What of the secret societies ? Who opposed the secret socie- 
ties 1 5. Where were the societies most active ? 



550 . History of the World. [a.d. 1846-1848 

redress of grievances from the people and severely pun- 
ished any attempts in that direction. While matters were 
in this condition the peoples saw another ruler, Charles 
X., driven from power for adopting despotic measures. A 
marked sensation was created in Germany, and the diet 
went on increasing its repressive measures in every direc- 
tion. 

SECTION II. Growing Rivalry between Austria and Prussia. 

6. Prussia. — After the Congress of Vienna Prussia re- 
presented in territory a hundred thousand square miles, 
and in population ten millions. It was jealous of Aus- 
tria's supremacy in the diet and had not forgotten the 
lessons of Frederick the Great. The Confederation was 
purely political in its objects. It did nothing for com- 
merce or business. Each state had its own commercial 
laws and arrangements, productive of great confusion and 
loss. To put an end to this Prussia 'organized a commer- 
cial league with all the German states save Austria, thus 
at one stroke removing all the barriers to interstate trade, 
producing much good to the German people and helping 
on the tendency to closer union. 

7. Austria and Reform. — The Emperor Francis I. of 
Austria, though a sincere lover of his people, stoutly re- 
sisted every attempt at an extension of their liberties. 
What he wanted 1 was obedient subjects. He had no con- 
ception of the political rights of a people, save such as 
he might choose to grant. His minister, Metternich, fully 
entered into his schemes. The consequence was that Aus- 
tria, troubled with divided nationalities and interests, and 
with a growing financial depression, became a very hot- 
bed of secret societies. 

What measures did the German Diet adopt ? 6. To what did Prussia aspire ? 
What league did Prussia organize ? 7. How did the Emperor of Austria act 1 
Who was the Austrian chief minister 1 



a.d. 1821-1827] Modern History. 551 

CHAPTER IV. 
THE EASTERN QUESTION. 

The Turkish Empire began to be a source of uneasiness to Europe. Greece 
was freed through a co-operation of the powers ; but England, fearful of Russian 
predominance on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean and at the gates of 
India, assumed a protectorate over the decaying empire. 

1. Final Decline of Turkey. — Notwithstanding her gra- 
dual decline after the battle of Lepanto, Turkey still 
held some of the fairest provinces of Europe, which un- 
der her rule were slowly rotting to decay. Lepanto saved 
Hungary from her, and Venice defeated her on the Gre- 
cian mainland. The Poles had beaten her back, and 
the giant power of Russia began to encroach ominously 
upon the Turkish borders in search of a southern sea- 
board. Thus originated the long struggle between Russia 
and Turkey, which has at times drawn into it all Eu- 
rope. 

2. Jealousy of Russia's Growth. — The other European 
powers, jealous of Russia's growth, were opposed to her 
obtaining this seaboard, which would give her com- 
mand of the eastern Mediterranean and immense com- 
mercial advantages. England, the great naval and com- 
mercial power, with vast interests of its own in the 
East, led this opposition and protected the Turks. The 
Christian peoples subject to the Turks repeatedly rose for 
their independence, but were put down. 

3. Grecian Insurrection (1821). — In 1821 the Greeks 
rose in a body, and for nearly seven years maintained 
single-handed a desperate struggle against the Turks. 
After losing half their people the English, French, and 

1. How fared Turkey after Lepanto ? What power was Turkey's chief oppo- 
nent? 2. Why did the powers oppose Eussia ? Who headed the opposition? 
3. Describe the Grecian insurrection of 1821. 



552 History of the World. [a.d. 1827-1839 

Eussian governments interfered and compelled Turkey to 
content herself for the future with a tribute and the 
nominal sovereignty of Greece. The allied fleets entered 
the Bay of JSTavarino and destroyed the Turkish fleet 
(1827), thus bringing Turkey to terms. The more south- 
ern of the Greek states, renowned in ancient times, were 
constituted into the kingdom of Greece, with Otho, son 
of the King of Bavaria, as its first monarch (1832). 

4. War between Russia and Turkey. — Meanwhile dis- 
putes broke out between Eussia and Turkey, resulting 
in war. Czar Nicholas invaded Turkey, and, notwith- 
standing an obstinate resistance, was soon within eighty 
miles of Constantinople. The Western powers took alarm. 
England and Austria hastened to interfere. Eussia signed 
an advantageous peace, which secured the virtual inde- 
pendence of the Servians. Egypt next revolted against 
Turkish rule and secured its independence, with a nomi- 
nal deference to Turkish suzerainty (1839). 



CHAPTEE V. 

PROGRESS OF EVENTS IN THE UNITED STATES 
(1816-1848). 

Aftek the close of the war with Great Britain (1815) great prosperity set 
in in the United States. The Western Territories began to be settled by na- 
tive and foreign immigrants. Meanwhile questions of state rights, commercial 
questions, and the question of slavery became subjects of bitter controversy. 
A war with Mexico added a new and wide domain to the country, and the dis- 
covery of gold in California raised tbat Territory to great importance. 

SECTION I. The Question of Slavery. 

1. Sources of Trouble. — During the administration of 

President Monroe (1817-1825) the question of slavery in 

What action did the powers take ? What constituted the kingdom of Greece 1 
Who was made king ? 4. Sketch the war between Eussia and Turkey. What 
of Egypt ? Describe the condition of the United States after 1815. 



a.d. 1817-1832] Modern History. 553 

the United States began to cause trouble. In the North- 
ern States the use of slaye labor had nearly died out. In 
the South, in consequence of the rapid development of 
the cotton industry, it had greatly increased. The field 
labor was entirely in the hands of negro slaves, who, with 
their industry, became sources of great wealth to the 
planters. 

2. In the Northern States slavery came to be prohibit- 
ed by law ; in all Territories south of New Jersey, Penn- 
sylvania, and Ohio it was permitted. Hence arose a strug- 
gle for the control of the government between the slave 
States and the free. The manufacturing North was in 
favor of high duties on foreign importations ; the agricul- 
tural South favored free-trade. This was another cause 
of disagreement. 

3. The Monroe Doctrine. — In 1820 occurred the revolt 
of the Spanish colonies of South America against the 
home government. Two years later President Monroe ac- 
knowledged them as independent nations. In the annual 
message (1823) the President made the important decla- 
ration that "the American continents are not to be con- 
sidered as subjects for future colonization by any Euro- 
pean power." This principle, known as the " Monroe 
Doctrine," was accepted by the people as the policy of 
the United States. 

4. Symptoms of Secession. — During the Presidency of 
Andrew Jackson (1829-1837) the dispute between North 
and South on the question of tariff deepened. In 1832 
a tariff act was passed increasing certain duties. A State 
convention in South Carolina declared the tariff acts un- 
constitutional, and preparations were made to take the 
State out., of the Union. The right of a State to annul 

1. How did the slave trouble originate in the United States ? 2. What other 
dispute arose in the Union 1 3. What is meant by the Monroe doctrine ? 4. 
Sketch the progress of the tariff dispute. 



554 History of the World. [ a .d. 1832-1848 

an act of Congress was claimed and supported by John C. 
Calhoun, who had resigned the Vice-Presidency. The Pre- 
sident issued a proclamation denying such right, and sent 
a vessel of war with troops to Charleston to enforce the 
proclamation. A compromise measure for the gradual re- 
duction of the tariff was introduced by Henry Clay, and 
the conflict was stayed for a time. 

SECTION II. War witb Mexico. 

5. Annexation of Texas. — In 1844 Texas, which had 
separated from Mexico in 1835, desired to be annexed to 
the United States. A treaty of annexation was passed 
(March 1, 1845), and a small army of occupation, under 
General Zachary Taylor, marched into Texas. This brought 
on war with Mexico. The Mexicans were defeated at Palo 
Alto (May 8, 1846), and again on the following day at 
Eesaca de la Palma. Eeinforcements arriving, the city of 
Monterey was captured in September, after a three days' 
conflict. 

6. Capture of the City of Mexico (1847).— The United 
States forces passed from victory to victory, even against 
great numerical odds. General Taylor utterly routed the 
Mexican president, General Santa Anna, at Buena Vista 
(February 23, 1847),, and the city of Vera Cruz surrender- 
ed to General Scott (March 26). Scott again defeated 
Santa Anna on the heights of Cerro Gordo, and in Au- 
gust, 1847, appeared before the city of Mexico. After a 
severe struggle it fell (September 14, 1847). A treaty of 
peace was signed at Guadalupe Hidalgo (February 2, 1848) 
which included the surrender of Texas and the sale to the 
United States of the provinces of Upper California and 
New Mexico. 

What action did the President take ? 5. What caused the war with Mexico ? 
Sketch the progress of the struggle. 6. Describe the battles of Buena Vista, 
Cerro Gordo, and the fall of Mexico. What treaty was signed ? 



a.d. 1848] Modern History. 555 

7. Discovery of Gold in California. — California at this 
time contained scarcely fifteen thousand inhabitants. Gold 
had been discovered (February, 1848) on the American fork 
of the Sacramento River. This discovery led to a great 
emigration from the Atlantic coast of the United States 
to the newly-acquired territory, and the gold-mines 
proved enormously productive. During President Polk's 
term the tide of emigration set in from Europe to the 
United States. Between 1845 and 1847 over half a mil- 
lion of people landed, more than half of whom were Irish. 

7. What discovery was made in California 1 What was the result of the dis- 
covery ? What great emigration began at this time ? 



SEVENTH EPOCH (1848-3881). 

PEOM THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 TO THE PRESENT DAY— THIRTY- 
THREE YEARS. 

The beginning of this epoch is characterized by a feverish excitement on 
all sides. The repressive policy of the European governments caused a gene- 
ral outbreak, followed by the granting of constitutional rights to the peoples. 
The Eastern question provoked new wars. Prussia completed the humiliation 
of Austria, conquered Prance with the aid of the German states, and, with 
itself as centre, raised up a new German Empire. The states of Italy were 
united into one kingdom, and the pope deprived of the last vestige of tem- 
poral power. The United States were convulsed with a terrific civil war, from 
which they emerged more powerful thau ever. 



CHAPTER I. 
THE REVOLUTION OE 1848. 

Prance again overthrows its government aud sets up a republic. The ex- 
ample is followed by a general revolt throughout Europe. 

SECTION I. Tlie Revolution in France (1848). 

1. Abdication of Louis Philippe. — Public meetings to agi- 
tate reform were prohibited in France. One announced in 
Paris for February 22, 1848, assembled in spite of prohibi- 
tion, and came into collision with the military. What was 
merely a demonstration became a revolution. The king 
abdicated in favor of his grandson and fled to England. 

2. The Republic. — A provisional republic was set up with 
Lamartine, a distinguished writer and orator, at its head. 
Legislation proceeded at a rapid rate. Some absurd and 

What is the character of the Seventh Epoch ? What great changes occurredin 
it? 1. How did the Revolution of 1848 originate in France? What became of 
Louis Philippe 1 2. What government was established 1 

556 



a.d. 1848] Modern History. 557 

some good measures were proposed and carried. The re- 
public was proclaimed with only one legislative cham- 
ber, the president to be elected once every four years. 

3. Paris rose in insurrection against the new govern- 
ment. A terrible conflict raged for three days, when, af- 
ter great shedding of blood, General Cavaignac succeeded 
in quelling the revolt. 

4. Louis Napoleon President (1848). — Prince Louis Na- 
poleon, having been allowed to return, was elected to the 
legislature, and soon became a candidate for the presi- 
dency. He was elected by an immense majority, and, en- 
tering office, swore to maintain the constitution (December 
10, 1848). 

SECTION II. Revolt in Prussia and Central Germany. 

5. Revolution in Germany. — The expulsion of Louis 
Philippe shocked Europe into the revolt for which it had 
been preparing. The people rose everywhere against the 
monarchs. In the smaller German states the princes at 
once succumbed and conceded whatever the people de- 
manded. 

6. Revolt quelled in Prussia. — The King of Prussia at- 
tempted to place himself at the head of the movement and 
guide it, promising liberal measures and parliamentary 
government. But the people rose in Berlin (March, 1848). 
The ministry was changed for a more liberal one, and a 
representative government was announced. The new As- 
sembly, unequal to its office, wasted time and public pa- 
tience in useless discussions. The troops concentrated 
under General Wrangel, entered Berlin, and turned the 
talkative Assembly out of doors. Eeaction again set in, 
and one of the strongest supporters of what were claimed 

3. What occurred in Paris ? 4. Who became President of the Republic ? 5. 
What effect had the revolution on Europe ? 6. What occurred in Prussia ? How 
was the revolution quelled ? 



558 History of the World. [a.d. 1848 

as the royal prerogatives in Prussia at this time was the 
young Count Otto von Bismarck. 

SECTION III. Revolt in Austria. 

7. Insurrection in Vienna. — Vienna followed the example 
of Paris. The palace of Prince Metternich was sacked. 
Conflicts occurred between the people and the military. A 
new ministry was appointed, freedom of the press was 
granted, and the people were promised whatever they de- 
manded. 

8. Rising throughout the Empire. — Soon all Austria was 
in commotion. Hungary declared its independence, and 
the Slavs of Bohemia and Silesia rose. Italy was in arms. 
Vienna was in insurrection, and the emperor had fled. 

9. duelling of the Revolt. — Vienna, after a terrific bom- 
bardment and slaughter, was captured from the insur- 
gents. Eadetzky defeated -the Italians and Prince "Win- 
dischgratz subdued the Slavs. The emperor, despairing of 
resuming his old character among the people, abdicated 
in favor of his nephew, Francis Joseph, a boy of eighteen. 
The revolt in Hungary under Kossuth and Gorgey was 
only quelled by the assistance of an army of one hundred 
and fifty thousand Russians. The Hungarians were treated 
with great barbarity, Haynau, the Austrian general, put- 
ting to death every Hungarian leader who fell into his 
hands. 

10. Concessions. — The revolts had their effect. The em- 
peror proclaimed the excellence of free institutions and the 
restoration of the empire on a free and liberal basis (De- 
cember 5, 1848). 

SECTION IV. The Revolution in Italy. 

11. Revolt quelled by Austria. — The secret societies had 

7. What occurred in Vienna ? & What oecnrred in other parts of the empire ? 
9. How was the Vienna revolt quelled ? What action did the emperor take ? 
What of Hungary ? 10. What concessions were made ? 



a.d. 1820-1849] Modern History. 559 

been exceptionally active in Italy, the most formidable of 
them being known as Carbonari. In 1820 revolts over- 
threw the governments of Naples and Piedmont ; but 
Austria, with the consent of the other powers, marched 
her armies in and quelled the insurrection. In 1831 an 
insurrection in Modena extended to the Papal States. The 
abolition of the temporal power of the pope (Gregory XVI. ) 
was proclaimed, when Austria again stepped in to put a 
stop to the movement. 

12. Rising against Austria. — Italy joined in the general 
revolt of 1848. The leaders of the secret societies flocked 
into the country. Mazzini was the spirit, Garibaldi the 
arm, of the rising. It was proposed to expel the Austrians 
from Venetia and Lombardy. Pius IX., who had recently 
ascended the papal throne (June 16, 1846), though an ar- 
dent Italian and liberal-minded man, refused to allow the 
authority and troops of the Holy See to be used as the 
instruments of bloodshed, and refused to join the insur- 
gents. 

13. Charles Albert, the King of Sardinia, invaded Lom- 
bardy, but was crushed by Eadetzky at Novara (March 23, 
1849), and abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Em- 
manuel. 

14. Rome in the Hands of the Revolutionists. — A revolt 
was raised in the Papal States, and Eome was seized by 
the insurgents. De Eossi, the pope's minister, was assassi- 
nated, and the pope compelled to fly to Gaeta. Anarchy 
reigned in the city. At the demand of the people of 
Prance Louis Napoleon, president of the French Eepublic, 
sent General Oudinot with an army to restore the pope 
and establish order. Eome was taken after a siege of two 
months. The pope returned in triumph from exile, and 

11. Describe events in Italy. Who quelled the revolts ? 12. Sketch the ris- 
ing against Austria. 13. What of Charles Albert ? 14. What occurred in 
Eome ? What was done by the French 1 



560 History of the World. [a.d. 1849-1854 

a permanent French force was left to protect him and 
maintain order (1849). 

SECTION V. Reforms in Great Britain and Ireland. 

15. The reform that had already set in in Great Bri- 
tain saved it from the general revolt. In Ireland mat- 
ters were different. O'Connell, after winning Catholic 
emancipation, struggled vainly to gain a repeal of the 
Union and Irish control over Irish affairs. His failure 
caused some of the more ardent and youthful of his fol- 
lowers to look to arms as their only chance for redress of 
grievances. These were known as the Young Ireland par- 
ty. An abortive rising was made. The leaders were taken 
and condemned to be executed. The sentence was changed 
to transportation for life, and after a period was commuted, 
save in the case of those who effected their escape. 



CHAPTEE II. 
RUSSIA AND THE EASTERN QUESTION. 

SECTION I. The Crimean War (1854-1856). 

1. Origin of the War. — The Eussian movement and pol- 
icy in the direction of the Mediterranean brought on an- 
other war with Turkey (October, 1853). The Turkish 
squadron was destroyed at Sinope. England, fearful of 
Eussia's advance, made an alliance with France, then un- 
der Napoleon III., against Eussia, and on March 28, 1854, 
declared war. 

2. Siege of Sebastopol. — The Allies were bent on destroy- 
ing Sebastopol, the Eussian fortress on the Black Sea. 

15. How fared matters in Ireland ? What of O'Connell and the Young Ireland 
party 1 ? 1. What new war occurred with Turkey? What alliance was made 
against Russia? 



a.d. 1854-1867] Modern History. 561 

Thus the war was chiefly confined to the Crimea. The 
first important battle occurred at the river Alma (Septem- 
ber 20, 1854), where the Russians were dislodged from a 
strong position and forced back towards Sebastopol. The 
Allies possessed themselves of the heights and the siege of 
the city was begun. 

3. Fall of Sebastopol; Treaty of Paris. — The Russians 
vainly attempted to dislodge them. One of their most for- 
midable attempts was made at Inkermann (November 5), 
but was repulsed. The siege was protracted through the 
winter, and bad management added greatly to the severity 
of the English soldiers' sufferings. In January, 1855, Sar- 
dinia joined the alliance. The Allies crept slowly up to 
the walls, and the Czar Nicholas, seeing his fortress doom- 
ed and his ambition foiled, died of a broken heart. He was 
succeeded by his son, Alexander II. The siege was pro- 
tracted to September, the defence being most stubborn. 
The city at last fell, after terrible losses to both sides, and 
peace was signed at Paris (March 30, 1856). Russia re- 
nounced her protectorate over the Danubian provinces and 
the Black Sea was made neutral. 

SECTION II. Russian Advance in Asia. 

4. Russia, checked in Europe, was steadily pushing her 
way into Central Asia. In 1867 her generals succeeded 
in establishing a protectorate over the state of Bokhara. 
This brought them into the vicinity of Afghanistan, and 
a diplomatic struggle for the mastery of that warlike 
country set in between England and Russia. Shere Ali, 
the ameer, after first siding with the English, went over 
to the Russians, thus bringing on a conflict in his own 

2. Sketch, the beginning of the campaign in Russia. 3. Describe the siege of 
Sebastopol. What new ally came in ? What of the Czar Nicholas ? How did 
the war end 1 4. Sketch Russian progress in Asia. 



562 History of the Would. [a.d. 1851 

dominions that ended with his death. In 1869 Kussia 
captured Khiva. 



CHAPTER III. 
CONCENTRATION OF THE GREAT POWERS. 

Louis Napoleon overturns the republic in France and becomes em- 
peror. By his aid Sardinia, by invading the rights of other principalities in 
Italy, absorbs them and forms the kingdom of Italy. Prussia gains the as- 
cendency over Austria, and by a successful war •with Prance welds the Ger- 
man states into one empire. 

SECTION I. Downfall of the French Republic. 

1. Coup d'Etat (December 2, 1851). — Once president of 
the French Republic, Louis Napoleon aimed at playing 
the role of his uncle and becoming emperor. Discreet in 
his actions and bringing prosperity to the country, he 
soon gained public confidence and with it complete con- 
trol over the army, the magistracy, and the police. To 
secure his power he resolved on destroying the Assembly, 
and, concentrating the troops, arrested the chief members 
on the night of December 2, 1851. Next morning the As- 
sembly was abolished and Paris placed in a state of siege. 

2. Louis Napoleon made Emperor. — A new government 
was proposed, with a president elected for ten years and 
enjoying what was practically absolute power. The people 
voted him the powers he asked. Paris alone rose, but the 
insurrection was quenched in blood. The Senate, at his 
instigation, next year moved the restoration of the em- 
pire, and the vote of the nation sanctioned its action. 
The Napoleonic dynasty was restored in the person of 

1. What was the ambition of Louis Napoleon 1 Describe his policy. Tell of 
the coup d'etat. 2. What followed the coup d'etat ? What action did the 
Senate take? 



a.d. 1852-1859] Modern History. 563 

Louis, who took the title of Napoleon III. (December 2, 
1852). 

SECTION II. Movements in Italy. 

3. Cavour. — Sardinia had been crippled at Novara, and 
in 1850 Victor Emmanuel called Count Cavour to the 
head of affairs. He was a man as able as he was unscru- 
pulous, and set himself the task of making Italy one 
kingdom. He took advantage of the secret societies. He 
restored the finances and strengthened the army. To gain 
Sardinia a recognition among the powers he sent an army 
to aid the Allies in the Crimea. 

4. War with Austria (1859). — Austria was still the 
strongest power in Italy, and it was necessary to break 
that power m order to carry out Cavour's schemes. A 
marriage was arranged between the Princess Clotilda, 
daughter of Victor Emmanuel, and Prince Jerome Na- 
poleon, cousin of the French emperor. Thus the French 
alliance was gained. Volunteers flocked in from all parts 
of Italy to join the Sardinian army. The Emperor of 
Austria remonstrated at the hostile movement, and, receiv- 
ing no satisfaction, invaded Sardinia (May 1, 1859). 

5. Battles of Magenta and Solferino ; Treaty of Villa 
Franca (1859). — The French joined the Sardinians (May 
13). The Austrians were beaten at Magenta (June 4) and 
at Solferino (June 24). Then, fearful of European inter- 
vention, Napoleon III., on his own account, hastily con- 
cluded a peace at Villa Franca (July 11). Lombardy was 
ceded to Sardinia through the emperor, but Austria was 
allowed to retain Venetia. Cavour resigned for the time 
rather than sign the, to him, incomplete treaty. Nice 
and Savoy were, by previous agreement, ceded by Sardinia 

3. Who was Cavour 1 Describe his character. 4. How was French alliance- 
won to Italy? What action did Austria take? 5. Describe the campaign in 
Italy. What was the peace of Villa Franca ? 



564 History of the World. [a.d. 1859-1860 

to France in return for the French assistance. The 
duchies of Parma, Modena, and Tuscany, which had ex- 
pelled their rulers, united themselves to Sardinia, and 
Eomagna was absorbed by the same power from the Pa- 
pal States. Sardinia had thus by a three months' cam- 
paign added nine millions to her population. 

6. Garibaldi's Campaign in Sicily and Naples (1860). — 
Cavour was recalled to power in 1860. In May of the 
same year Garibaldi, with Cavour's connivance, invaded 
Sicily at the head of a force of adventurers. In three 
months the island was in his power and he declared him- 
self dictator. In August he crossed over to Calabria, and 
the king, Francis II., fled to Gaeta. Naples opened its 
gates to Garibaldi (September 7). 

7. Seizure of the Papal States. — Pius IX. had vainly 
appealed to the Catholic powers against the absorption 
of Eomagna. He appealed from them to the devotion of 
the faithful, and Catholic volunteers flocked to him from 
all lands. Lamoriciere was his general. Before they 
could concentrate Cavour ordered the invasion of the Pa- 
pal States, and General Cialdini crushed the little band 
of volunteers at Castelfidardo (September 18), and com- 
pleted his victory by compelling Lamoriciere to capitulate 
at Ancona (September 29, 1860). The Roman Marches and 
Umbria were seized, and the pope was left nothing save a 
narrow strip of territory on the Mediterranean, including 
the cities of Rome and Civita Vecchia, with a population 
of about half a million. 

SECTION III. Prussian Development. 

8. Count von Bismarck. — Frederick William, dying in 
1861, was succeeded by his brother, William I. Count 

What was Sardinia's gain ? 6. Describe Garibaldi's campaign in Sicily and 
Naples. 7. To whom did the pope look for aid ? Describe the seizure of the 
Papal States. What was left to the pope ? 



a.d. 1861-1866] Modern History. 565 

Bismarck, the resolute opponent of popular government, 
already in fay or with the old monarchy, was still further 
advanced under the new. Called back from the French 
embassy (1862), he was asked to conduct the government. 
There was conflict between the executive and the Lower 
House of Parliament. Bismarck put an end to it by dis- 
solving Parliament and telling the members that he would 
carry on the government without them. This he did for 
four years. 

9. War with Denmark (1863) ; the Schleswig-Holstein 
Difficulty. — He was resolved on making Prussia the lead- 
ing power in Germany. Austria was now weaker than it 
ever had been. Bismarck's association with Napoleon III. 
had enabled him to gauge the capacities of that monarch. 
A dispute over the succession to the duchies of Schleswig 
and Holstein gave him his first opportunity. They claimed 
their independence from Denmark, and the matter was re- 
ferred to the German Diet (1863). The Diet favored the 
claims of the duchies as belonging to the German Confede- 
ration. The result was a war, in which the Danes, fail- 
ing promised aid from England, were beaten by the joint 
forces of Austria and Prussia, and the disputed duchies 
occupied by the troops of the allies. 

10. War with Austria (1866). — Here a new dispute arose 
as to the share of the spoils, Prussia and Austria each 
striving for control over the provinces. Austria referred 
the matter to the Diet (May, 1866), but Prussia, aided 
by other German states, withdrew from the Confederation 
and invaded Holstein. War was declared against Austria 
(June 18, 1866). Italy joined Prussia. 

11. Battle of Sadowa; Peace of Prague. — The Italians 
were defeated at Custozza with great loss (June 24, 1866), 

8. Who succeeded Frederick William of Prussia ? What of Count Bismarck ? 
9. What occasioned the war with Denmark ? Doscribe the war. 10. What dis- 
pute now arose 1 The result 1 



566 History of the World. [a.d. 1866-1870 

and their fleet, though superior in numbers, was badly 
beaten and driven into the harbor of Ancona (July 20). 
Count von Moltke was the Prussian commander, and his 
superior generalship secured victory in the north. Bo- 
hemia was invaded, and the Austrians were driven back 
towards Sadowa. Here the decisive battle was fought 
(July 3). The Austrians were completely defeated. 
Peace was signed at Prague (August, 1866). Venetia 
was ceded to Italy, and the supremacy in Germany se- 
cured to Prussia. A new confederation of the German 
states north of the Main was formed, with Prussia at 
the head (1866). 

SECTION IV. War between France and Germany (1870-1871). 

12. Decay of the Third Empire. — The sudden rise of 
Prussia awakened the jealousy of the French people. The 
government of Napoleon III. had been growing unpopular. 
A French expedition into Mexico to set the Archduke 
Maximilian on the throne had ended in disaster and the 
death of Maximilian. The emperor tried to conciliate the 
French people by giving them half-liberties, which only 
exasperated them and were used against him. He was, 
moreover, growing physically weak and had lost his most 
capable advisers. 

13. Immediate Cause of the War. — Napoleon III. had, 
at Bismarck's instance, remained neutral during the war 
between Prussia and Austria, on the understanding of cer- 
tain returns consequent on Prussia's^ victory. His demands 
were curtly rejected. The French people felt themselves 
humiliated. A revolution had occurred in Spain, expelled 
Queen Isabella, and endowed General Prim with the chief 
power. After various offers of the Spanish crown Prince 

11. How fared Italy *? Describe the campaign in Bohemia. Where were the 
Austrians defeated ? Give the terms of peace. 12. What of Napoleon III. and 
his empire ? J3, What new struggle came on ? 



a.d. 1870] Modern History. 567 

Leopold of Hohenzollern, a remote blood-relation of the 
Prussian king, was selected and the offer was accepted. 

14. A storm was raised in France, and, at the instance 
of the English government, the King of Prussia agreed to 
withdraw his consent to Prince Leopold's acceptance of the 
Spanish crown. The emperor demanded that at no future 
time should he sanction such a nomination. This extraor- 
dinary demand was refused, and war was declared against 
Prussia (July 19, 1870). 

15. Opening of the Campaign; Battles of Wissembourg, 
W5rth, and Spicheren. — The French set out to invade 
Prussia, the emperor at their head. The German states 
united against the invaders. Count Bismarck had completed 
his arrangements, while Napoleon III. was wholly deceived 
as to the condition and numbers of his armies. The Ger- 
mans were given time to concentrate, and at the first 
important engagement (Wissembourg, August 5) General 
Douay was surprised by the German crown prince, his 
force routed, and himself slain. Douay commanded the 
left wing of MacMahon's army, and on the next day the 
latter was attacked and beaten, near Worth, by greatly 
superior forces. On the same day General Steinmetz, with 
inferior forces, stormed the heights of Spicheren and dis- 
lodged the French under General Frossard. 

16. Effect of the Defeats. — These were terrible blows, and 
France now found itself invaded. The emperor was with 
Bazaine at Metz, dismayed at the sudden disasters. At 
the news of the defeats Paris was in wild commotion and 
the ministry was compelled to resign. MacMahon had 
reached Chalons with his broken remnants, and there drew 
up and concentrated. The joint command of MacMahon 
and Bazaine still represented about three hundred thou- 

14. What was the immediate cause of war? 15. Who leagued against 
France ? Describe the opening battles 16. How did Paris accept the de- 
feats ? What armies wore left to France ? 



568 History of the World. [a.d. 1870 

sand men, and Metz was a city strong enough, if properly 
defended, to stay the German advance. 

17. Battles of Rezonville and Gravelotte. — On August 14 
Bazaine began a retreat towards Chalons, with a view to 
effecting a junction with MacMahon. He had lingered too 
long and allowed the Germans to come between them. 
His retreat was stayed by Von Steinmetz at a desperate sac- 
rifice. At Eezonville and Gravelotte were fought two bloody 
battles on the 16th and 18th. Bazaine was forced back 
towards Metz, and the city was invested by Prince Frede- 
rick Charles. 

18. Battle of Sedan. — The crown prince was making for 
Chalons in hot haste. MacMahon was, against his own ad- 
vice, ordered to relieve Metz. He eluded the crown prince, 
but was overtaken by his cavalry on the 29th. Next day 
General de Failly was surprised at Mouzon. After several 
days of severe fighting some of the French were forced over 
the Belgian frontier and compelled to lay down their arms, 
and the rest entered the town of Sedan, MacMahon be- 
ing severely wounded. The Germans with their artil- 
lery occupied the heights around Sedan, and resistance 
was useless. The emperor surrendered and the army ca- 
pitulated (September 2). 

19. Revolution in Paris ; Proclamation of a Republic. 
— At the news Paris rose and invaded the legislative 
body (September 4), 'the National Guards fraternizing 
with the populace. A republic under a provisional gov- 
ernment was at once proclaimed. The Empress Eugenie 
barely escaped with her life. 

20. Siege of Paris. — The King of Prussia and the 
crown prince now advanced on Paris. The city was in- 
vested (September 19) and shut off from the rest of France. 

17. How was Bazaine caught 1 18. What order was given MacMahon ? De- 
scribe events leading to the surrender at Sedan. 19. What occurred in Paris ? 
20. Tell of Gambetta's exploit. 



a. d. 1870-1871] Modern History. 569 

Leon Gambetta, a member of the provisional government, 
escaped in a balloon, and, reaching Tours (October 9), 
assumed the civil and military government of France out- 
side Paris. 

21. Fall of Metz. — Orleans was occupied (September 27), 
evacuated, and again taken (October 10) by the Bava- 
rians under General Von der Tann. Bazaine was sur- 
rounded in Metz. The hopes of France were centred in 
him, but he attempted to play politician. Failing, he 
surrendered on October 29, and France was left without 
a regular army in the field. 

22. Fall of Paris ; Treaty of Versailles. — Gambetta 
proved himself an active organizer, but the levies were 
raw, undisciplined, and badly generalled. They were easily 
defeated on all sides by the German veterans. All the 
attempts to relieve Paris were utterly defeated. The city, 
under General Trochu, made a stubborn defence, but it 
was hopeless. The Germans were victorious everywhere, 
and by the middle of January, 1871, there was not a 
French army worthy of the name. The city capitulated 
on January 28, and the preliminaries of peace were signed 
at Versailles (February 26). The province of Alsace, save 
the unconquered fortress of Belfort, and a fifth part of 
Lorraine, including Metz, were ceded to Germany. An 
indemnity of $1,000,000,000 was demanded, to be paid 
within three years, a German army of occupation to re- 
main until it was paid. On March 1 the German armies 
entered Paris in triumph. The indemnity was paid within 
the tinie and without borrowing of any foreign country. 

21. What occurred at Orleans ? Tell of the fall of Metz. 22. What efforts did 
the French make ? Who defended Paris ? Tell of the peace of Versailles. 
What indemnity was demanded 1 



570 History of the World. [a.d. 1861-1 8GG 

CHAPTER IV. 
RUSSIA AFTER THE CRIMEAN WAR. 

SECTION I. Reforms of Alexander II. 

1. The Serfs freed. — The Czar Nicholas ruled Russia 
with an iron hand. His death, following on the defeat 
in the Crimea, brought with it only bitter memories. 
The revolution that had shaken Europe found some 
echoes in Russia, and on the accession of Alexander II. 
certain concessions were made to the people. The press 
was allowed greater freedom and disseminated the new 
ideas. Upwards of forty millions of Russian peasants 
were in a state of serfdom. The emperor, in spite of the 
strenuous opposition of the nobles, abolished serfdom 
(1861). He introduced trial by jury in criminal cases and 
admitted the people to a certain share in local self-gov- 
ernment. But the general government remained still a 
rigorous absolutism. 

2. Insurrection in Poland (1863). — The Poles had never 
lost the hope of regaining their freedom and autonomy. 
The results of the war and the new concessions profound- 
ly moved Russian society. This was thought to favor the 
Polish movement, which was hastened by the insults of 
the czar and his officials. The czar, knowing what was 
contemplated, goaded on the Poles by capturing all the 
youths of the noble and higher classes who were judged 
to be disaffected towards the government. The exaspe- 
rated people rose. 

3. The Poles crushed. — The rising was simply a brutal 

1. What concessions did Alexander II. make? What did he abolish? 2. 
What hope had the Poles ? How did the czar treat the Poles 2 What was 
the result? 



a.d. 1866-1876] Modern History. 571 

massacre on the part of the Russians. England, France, 
and Austria remonstrated with Russia in behalf of the 
Poles, but their remonstrance never went beyond words. 
The insurrection was put down with inhuman cruelty. 
What was left of Poland became 'wholly incorporated with 
Russia. The Polish language was suppressed by law. The 
religion of the people, the Catholic, became an object of 
bitter persecution, and all intercourse between the Catho- 
lic clergy in Poland and all Russia with the Holy See was 
prohibited. 

SECTION II. Russian Schemes of Aggrandizement. 

4. Revolt of Crete; the Suez Canal. — Russia, haying 
partially recovered from the effects of the Crimean war, 
advanced again towards the Mediterranean. She fed the 
constant disaffection of the Christian provinces under 
Turkish rule. In 1866 Crete rose against Turkey and 
was actively supported by both Russia and Greece. Eng- 
land secretly supported Turkey. Others of the powers 
made representations in behalf of the Cretans. A com- 
promise was effected at Paris (1869), and the insurrection 
ended as soon as outer aid was withdrawn. In the same 
year the Suez Canal, thanks to the energy and engineering 
skill of M. de Lesseps, opened up a new avenue between 
the East and the West. 

SECTION III. War between Russia and Turkey (1876-1877). 

5. Declaration of War. — Russia called for a conference 
of the European powers to determine the disputes between 
Turkey and the revolting Christian provinces, that were 
greatly .oppressed under Turkish rule. The conference was 

3. Describe the Polish rising. How was it quelled ? 4. Describe the Cretan 
revolt. Who supported it f What of the Suez Canal ? 5. What conference was 
called f The result ? 



572 History of the World. [ a .d. 1877 

held at Constantinople, and during its session Russia mo- 
bilized her armies and moved them up to the Turkish 
frontier. The powers disagreed, the conference ended in 
nothing, and Russia, as champion of the oppressed Chris- 
tians, declared war against Turkey (April, 1877). 

6. Defence of Plevna. — The Russian armies poured into 
the country and the Danube was crossed with scarcely a 
show of resistance. Montenegro and Roumania rose, and 
there was talk of a Russian dress-parade to Constanti- 
nople. Benjamin Disraeli, the Conservative leader, was 
at the head of affairs in England. The Turks, under 
incompetent generals and oppressed by palace intrigues 
at Constantinople, seemed wholly demoralized. Suddenly 
Osman Pasha, a Turkish general, seized upon the rocky 
fortress of Plevna, in Bulgaria, and occupied it. The Rus- 
sians had already passed it in neglect. The mistake was 
seen. The Grand Duke Constantine's march was arrested, 
and his army came back to take the improvised strong- 
hold of the Turks. 

7. Fall of Plevna. — A memorable siege ensued. The 
flower of the Russian army was hurled in vain at the 
earthworks defended by arms of precision. The Turks 
made a most stubborn and patient defence. The Russian 
losses were terrible, and at length General Todleben, who 
had defended Sebastopol, was called in. He abandoned 
all ' thoughts of taking so strong a place by assault, and 
a regular siege began. All attempts to relieve the place 
were defeated, and the garrison, at length reduced to star- 
vation, made a desperate sortie that ended in capitulation 
(December 10, 1877). There was left but one effective 
Turkish army in the field, defending the Shipka Pass. 
It soon surrendered to General Gourko. The passes of 

On what pretence did Russia declare war? 6. Describe the opening of the 
campaign. How and by whom was the Russian advance arrested ? 7. Describe 
tho siege of Plevna. How was it taken 1 What followed the fall of Plevna ? 



a.d. 1877-1878] Modern History. 573 

the Balkans had no longer defenders, and the "way to 
Constantinople lay open. 

8. Treaty of San Stefano ; England's Intervention. — There 
was intense excitement in England. The premier took 
the bold plan of ordering the British fleet to protect 
English interests in Constantinople. This "was felt to be 
equivalent to a declaration of war, if Eussia proceeded in 
her conquests. The Russians had lost heavily, and their 
generals had shown incompetency. General Ignatieff, the 
Eussian minister at Constantinople, concluded a hasty 
treaty, very favorable to Eussia, with the beaten Turks 
at San Stefano. A contingent of Indian troops was sum- 
moned to Malta by Mr. Disraeli, now Lord Beaconsfield, 
and Europe saw that England was prepared to enter on a 
desperate war that could hardly fail to embroil the other 
powers (May, 1878). 

9. Conference of the Powers at Berlin. — The powers did 
not wish to go to war. So a conference was summoned 
at Berlin to consider the terms of General Ignatieff's San 
Stefano treaty. Eussia was compelled to agree. The re- 
sult was a further and fatal dismemberment of the Turk- 
ish empire in Europe. Eussia received a large and rich 
portion. Bosnia and Herzegovina were placed under the 
protection of Austria and compelled by force to accept the 
arrangement. Eoumania, Servia, and Montenegro were 
declared free and their territory increased, as also east- 
ern Eoumelia and Bulgaria, Bulgaria being erected into a 
principality. By this arrangement Turkey lost eighty- 
three thousand three hundred square miles of territory 
and nearly five millions of people (July, 1878). 

10. England gains Cyprus. — By a secret treaty with Eng- 
land Cyprus was ceded to that power, in return for which 

8. What action was taken in England 'J What was the treaty of San Stefano ? 
9. How did the powers act ? What was agreed on at the Berlin Conference ? 
What was the loss to Turkey 1 10. What did England gain ? 



574 History of the World. [a.d. 1878-1881 

England promised to defend the sultan by force of arms 
against any future attempt on the part of Russia to take 
possession of the sultan's dominions in Asia as fixed by 
the treaty of Berlin ; the sultan promising in return to 
introduce necessary reforms in his government. 

11. Socialism in Bussia; Assassination of Alexander II. 
— The result of the war with Turkey was a grievous dis- 
appointment to the Russian people. Civil disturbances, 
which had been long fermenting in secret, burst out with 
a sudden and ferocious vigor. The war showed gross cor- 
ruption, incompetency, and peculation in high places. 
The agitation for reform drew numbers into secret soci- 
eties, the members of which called themselves Nihilists, 
or Nothingists, their aim being to overturn everything. 
Rigorous measures were taken against them and were an- 
swered by a campaign of assassination and incendiarism 
on their part. Many high officials fell victims, and, after 
various unsuccessful attempts on his life, the czar, Alex- 
ander II., was at length destroyed by an explosive bomb 
(March 13, 1881). He was succeeded by his son under 
the title of Alexander III., who continued his father's re- 
pressive policy. 

SECTION IV. The new German Empire. 

12. The King of Prussia made Emperor. — At Versailles, 
on the eve of the capitulation of Paris, the princes and 
representatives of the confederate German states met and 
agreed to merge into an empire with the King of Prussia 
as emperor. The power of legislation for the new empire 
was vested in a Parliament elected by universal suffrage. 
The sovereigns, retaining their former rank, were repre- 
sented in a federal council. Count Bismarck, on whom 

On what conditions did England gam Cyprus'? 11. How did the war affect 
Russia 1 Who were the Nihilists ? What befell Alexander H. ? 12. On what did 
the German states agree at Versailles? 



a.d. 1873-1879] Modern History. 575 

the title of prince was conferred, was made chancellor of 
the empire. 

13. Persecution of the Catholics in Prussia. — One of the 
chancellor's first acts was to begin a persecution of the 
Catholics, whose prelates and priests he accused of being- 
hostile to the new empire. The Jesuits were expelled the 
empire, and were soon followed by the other religious 
orders. Eeligious communities were broken up and dis- 
persed and new laws framed (May, 1873) which made the 
Church completely subject to the state in all matters. 
These laws are known as the May Laws, and Dr. Falk, 
the Minister of Public Worship, was chiefly instrumental 
in preparing them. 

14. The Centre. — The G-erman Catholics steadfastly re- 
sisted these measures by whatever means the law left in 
their power. They formed a political party called the 
Centre, under very able leaders, and, notwithstanding all 
the assaults of the government, the party grew in num- 
bers and in strength at each new election until it finally 
held in its hands the balance of power in the German 
Parliament. 

15. Social Disturbances in Germany. — The war spirit 
over and the French milliards spent, for military purposes 
chiefly, dissatisfaction began to show itself with Prince 
Bismarck's internal policy. The pinch of poverty came 
to large sections of the country and was felt severely by 
the artisan classes, who found themselves without work, 
while the taxes and the armies were being constantly in- 
creased. A social agitation was set on foot. The laws 
against Catholics told equally against Protestants. Mar- 
riage and baptism were made civil ceremonies, with the 
option, should people choose, of adding the religious cere- 

13. Why did Bismarck assail the Catholics? Describe the persecution and the 
May Laws. 14. How did the Catholics meet the persecution ? 15. What agita- 
tion sprang up in Germany ? Describe the effect of the May Laws', 



576 History of the World. [a.d. 1879-1881 

mony. An irreligious spirit pervaded the masses of the 
non-Catholic people, ■ and socialism, which aimed at the 
overthrow of all government, made easy way among them. 
Two attempts, one of which proved nearly fatal, were made 
on the emperor's life. 

16. Bismarck and the Catholics. — Prince Bismarck soon 
found himself without a majority in the Parliament. This 
drove him to seek alliance with the Catholics (1879-1880), 
and negotiations were entered into with that effect in view. 
These negotiations became more active in 1881, when the 
chancellor found himself more embarrassed for a majority 
and the Catholics stronger than ever. The government 
made some approach to removing Catholic disabilities by 
a milder application of the May Laws and the appointment 
of one or two bishops to vacant sees. These signs of re- 
conciliation were received with great disfavor by the Libe- 
ral party in Germany. 

SECTION V. Austro-Hungary (1867-1881). 

17. Austria having lost its supremacy in Germany at 
Sadowa, the emperor devoted himself to healing the in- 
ternal troubles of his empire. Hungary was granted a 
separate legislature and home-rule, and the emperor was 
crowned King of Hungary at Pesth (June, 1867). A con- 
stitution was also drawn up for the western provinces of 
the empire, and by wise provisions and concessions grave 
causes of discontent were removed without threatening 
the integrity of the empire. 

16. To whom did Bismarck turn for aid'! What negotiations did he enter 
into? 17. What of Austria after Sadowa? "What of Hungary? What of the 
western provinces? 



a.d. 1867-1870] Modern History. 577 



CHAPTEE V. 

RECENT EVENTS IN ITALY, FRANCE, SPAIN, AND 
THE MINOR STATES OE EUROPE. 

Italy is united into one nation under the house of Savoy. In France a new 
republic is set up. Queen Isabella is expelled from Spain, and after various 
changes of government her dynasty is restored in the person of her son Alfonso. 

SECTION I. Italian Unification. 

1. Events in Rome. — In June, 1867, occurred the eight- 
eenth centenary of the martyrdom of St. Peter. To cele- 
brate that event Pius IX. invited the entire Catholic epis- 
copate to Eome. Five hundred and twelve bishops, with 
twenty thousand priests and a mighty throng of laity, obey- 
ed the call. At a consistory held on June 26 the pope 
announced his intention of summoning a general council 
to determine on various matters that had come up for 
discussion since the Council of Trent. 

2. Council of the Vatican (1869-1870).— The council 
was summoned for December 8, 1869. It lasted eight 
months and was attended by seven hundred and sixty- 
six fathers. A number of important subjects concerning 
Catholic doctrine, discipline, and morals were discussed, 
but the chief subject of deliberation was the infallibility 
of the pope. A minority of the fathers thought the 
time unseasonable for defining this doctrine. At the last 
session there were present five hundred and thirty-five 
bishops. It was then defined by the council to be a doc- 
trine divinely revealed that when the pope teaches the 
universal Church ex cathedra he is infallible. 

3. Seizure of Rome. — The council had scarcely broken 

1. What happened in Rome, June, 1867 ? What announcement did the pope 
make ? 2. How many attended the Council of the Vatican ? What subjects were 
discussed ? What was the chief matter denned ? - 



578 History of the World. [ a .d. 1870-1878 

up when the impending war between France and Ger- 
many burst forth. The French garrison was soon with- 
drawn from Rome, the Italian government pledging itself 
to protect the papal territory from invasion. It proceeded 
to do so very effectually by possessing itself of it. An 
Italian army appeared before Rome (September 20, 1870), 
and after a slight resistance opened a breach in the wall 
and marched in by the Porta Pia. 

4. Italian Government in Rome. — A packed plebiscite 
was resorted to, and it was declared that the Roman peo- 
ple desired union with the rest of Italy, and the Roman 
territory was proclaimed part of the kingdom of Italy. 
The seat of the Italian government was transferred from 
Florence to Rome. To the pope was left the Leonine City, 
comprising the palace of the Vatican, the castle of St. 
Angelo, and the church of St. Peter. An annual income 
with sovereign title and rank was offered him by way of 
indemnity, but refused, and all intercourse between the 
pope and the usurping government ceased. 

5. Effect on the Church of the Papal Dispossession. — The 
seizure of Rome only increased the devotion of the faith- 
ful towards the Holy Father all over the world, and, if 
possible, drew him into more direct contact with all the 
members of the universal Church. It was thus conspicu- 
ously made manifest that the falling away of the govern- 
ments from spiritual allegiance to the Holy See, which 
began in the eighteenth century and was fully accomplish- 
ed in the nineteenth, did not extend to the peoples. In 
Protestant countries especially the long pontificate of Pius 
IX. witnessed a wonderful growth and development of 
Catholic strength. 

6. Accession of Leo XIII. (1878).— Pius IX., full of 



3. Describe the seizure of Rome by the Italian government. 4. How did the 
government cover its act 1 What was offered to the pope? 5. What effect bad 
the seizure of Rome on the Catholic world ? Did Catholicity decline 1 



a.d. 1878] Modern History. 579 

years and sorrows, yet with great spiritual consolations, 
died February 7, 1878. Victor Emmanuel died a few 
days before him, and was succeeded by his son, Humbert 
I. A conclave of the cardinals was immediately summon- 
ed, and their choice fell upon Cardinal Joachim Pecci, 
who assumed the title of Leo XIII. (February 20, 1878). 
The accession of the new pontiff was hailed with joy by 
the Church and received with favor by the governments. 
"With the latter he at once assumed-, an attitude of con- 
ciliatory firmness, and strove with all his might to restore 
their good relations with the Holy See for the double bene- 
fit of the Church and the world. 

SECTION II. The New French Republic. 

7. The Paris Commune. — On the withdrawal of the Ger- 
man army from Paris the National Guard, or citizen mi- 
litia, had been allowed to retain their arms. Their ranks 
were filled with Socialists, who determined to seize the 
power. A conflict between them and a few regular troops 
(March 18, 1871) was the signal for an outbreak. A mu- 
nicipal council composed of the worst element assumed 
authority under title of La Commune. 

8. Thiers made Chief. — The French soldiers imprisoned 
in Germany were hurried back, and Marshal MacMahon 
was given command. Elections had been held in the first 
week of February. The majority of members returned to 
the Assembly were Legitimists and Orleanists, the chief 
towns returning Eepublicans. Adolphe Thiers, being made 
Chief of the Executive, appointed a Ministry and Coun- 
cil of the Assembly. 

9. Atrocities of the Commune. — Paris put itself in a state 
of defence, and within reigned anarchy. An assault was 

6. What deaths occurred at this time ? Who was elected pope ? How was the 
election received? 7. What followed the withdrawal of the G-ermans from Paris? 
8. Who was elected chief in France ? 



580 History of the World. [ a .d. 1871-1873 

delayed for weeks with a view of avoiding bloodshed, if 
possible. On May 21 the French army entered the city. 
As they entered the Communards set fire to the Tuileries, 
the Hotel de Ville, and other important public buildings. 
They then massacred Mgr. Darboy, the Archbishop of Pa- 
ris, the rector of the Madeleine, the president of the 
Court of Cassation, and fifty or sixty others, priests for 
the most part, whom they had seized upon as hostages 
(May 27). That same day the army occupied the city. 

10. Recovery of France. — The Assembly, sanctioned by 
the voice of the people, changed Thiers' title of Chief of 
the Executive to that of President of the French Ee- 
public. With the return of peace France again astonished 
the world by her extraordinary vitality. The milliards of 
the indemnity were paid off with surprising rapidity. 
The final payments were made in 1873, and France was 
evacuated by the German armies in September. In Janu- 
ary of the same year Napoleon III. died at the village of 
Chiselhurst, England, where he had taken up his abode, 
and the leadership of the Bonapartist party fell to his 
young son, Louis. 

11. Fight of Factions in France. — Factions in France 
began again to fight for supremacy. The Legitimists, 
who formed the strongest party in the Assembly, made a 
movement to restore royalty in the person of Henry, 
Count of Chambord, the grandson of Charles X., whom 
they recognized as heir of the house of Bourbon. But 
the scheme was frustrated as much from dissensions with- 
in as from opposition without the party, and their pros- 
pects continued steadily to decline. The hopes of the 
Bonapartists were shattered by the death of Prince Louis 
Napoleon in an English expedition against the Zulus of 

9. Tell of the Commune and its acts. 10. What title was bestowed on Thiers? 
How did Prance recover? Where did Napoleon III. die? 11*. Describe the fight 
of factions in France. 



a.d. 1873-1881] Modern History. 581 

Africa. In his will he bequeathed his claims of succes- 
sion to his cousin Victor, son of Prince Jerome Napo- 
leon ; but the latter claimed them for himself and thus 
"widened the breach in the shattered Bonapartist ranks. 

12. Republican Success in France. — Thiers constantly 
awed the Assembly with threats of resignation when they 
opposed his will. To his surprise his resignation was at 
last accepted and Marshal MacMahon elected president in 
his place (August, 1873). MacMahon held the post with 
honor and distinction, and refused to make himself a party 
to the royalist schemes. The Kepublicans, under the leader- 
ship of G-ambetta, made rapid advances, and at the general 
elections of December, 1875, gained a decided majority. 

13. Persecution of the Religious Orders. — Finding his 
views opposed to the majority, MacMahon resigned (1878), 
and M. Grevy, a Eepublican, was chosen in his place. 
Gambetta from the outset showed a bitterly anti-Catho- 
lic policy, declaring "clericalism" to be the enemy of 
France. The Catholic teaching orders were removed from 
public education (1879), and the Jesuits expelled and dis- 
solved as a religious body in France (May 30, 1880). 

14. Gambetta in Power. — On the other hand, amnesty 
was granted to the Communards who had been exiled for 
the part they had taken in the crimes of the Commune, 
and they were welcomed back to France with great de- 
monstrations of delight by their supporters. In the early 
part of 1881 the French government organized an expe- 
dition against Tunis, which soon developed into a war of 
conquest in North Africa and caused much ill-feeling 
against France in Italy and England. Gambetta, under 
the shadow of President Grevy's name, exercised the chief 
power in France. After the elections of October, 1881, 

What of Prince Louis Napoleon ? 12. Who succeeded Thiers ? 13. Who suc- 
ceeded MacMahon 1 ? What new policy came in? 14. Sketch events up to the 
fall of Gambetta. 



582 History of the World. [a.d. 1833-1870 

he was called on to form a cabinet and assume responsi- 
bility for the power he wielded, but the cabinet soon col- 
lapsed and Gambetta was succeeded by De Ereycinet. 

SECTION III. Spain (1868-1881). 

15. Isabella dethroned.— Isabella II. (1833-1868) was 
called to the Spanish throne when a minor. The power 
thenceforth became an object of ambition for military 
adventurers, and the country suffered from a succession of 
bad governments. A revolt organized by Generals Prim 
and Serrano, with Admiral Topete (September, 1868), suc- 
ceeded in expelling Isabella, and a provisional government 
was declared with Serrano as president, Prim at the head 
of the army, and Topete in command of the navy. The 
queen was deposed, the Jesuits were expelled and reli- 
gious communities dissolved in Spain. 

16. Insurrections; a new Ministry. — The Cortes decided 
on a royal government. Insurrections broke out in Jerez, 
Cadiz, Malaga, and other places, but were sternly re- 
pressed. Elections by universal suffrage were ordered for 
a Cortes, or parliament, to determine the form of govern- 
ment. A strong monarchical majority was returned and 
Prim made Prime Minister and Minister of War, Serrano 
being appointed regent. 

17. Election of Amadeus; Carlist Rising. — Prim sought 
a king, and, failing in Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, 
offered the crown to Prince Amadeus, Duke of Aosta, 
second son of Victor Emmanuel. He was elected over 
bitter opposition in the Cortes (November 16, 1870). A 
few hours before he landed Prim was assassinated in Ma- 
drid. The Cubans rose in revolt against the home gov- 

15. How fared Spain under Isabella II. ? By whom, was Isabella expelled ? 
16. What followed the expulsion? 17. Who was elected king? How was 
Amadeus welcomed ? 



a.d. 1872-1875] Modern History. 583 

ernment, and the Carlists rose in the north in favor of 
Don Carlos. 

18. Proclamation of a Republic (1872). — Amadeus abdi- 
cated and left , the country. A republic was then pro- 
claimed. There were more risings in various cities and 
fearful atrocities committed by the socialists, or Intransi- 
gentes. Emilio Castelar, the most brilliant of the re- 
publican orators, was made dictator. The suppressed Car- 
list insurrection broke out more strongly than before 
{February, 1873). Everything was in confusion. The 
army was becoming demoralized. Castelar suspended the 
sessions of the Cortes for three months, and on their re- 
assembling (January 2, 1874) they refused a vote of confi- 
dence in him, whereupon General Pavia turned them out 
of doors and appointed a provisional government with Ser- 
rano at the head. 

19. Recall of Prince Alfonso. — The republican insurrec- 
tions were speedily suppressed. The Carlis£s were by this 
time extremely formidable and defeated the government 
forces in several important engagements. At the begin- 
ning of 1875 Generals Martinez Campos and Primo di Ei- 
vera proclaimed Prince Alfonso, son of the exiled Isabella, 
king, with the title of Alfonso XII. The nation approved 
the act. Alfonso landed. The Carlist insurrection was 
soon crushed. The liberties of the Church were in some 
measure restored and peace settled down again on the 
land. 

SECTION IV. Minor States of Europe. 

20. Sweden and Norway. — After the eighteenth century 
Sweden and Norway continued to decline as powers, but 
the people were prosperous and peaceful under a milder 

18. What became of Amadeus ? What followed the proclamation of a repub- 
lic 1 How were the Cortes treated '? 19. What of the Carlists ? Who was called 
to the throne ? 



584 History of the World. [a.d. 1815-1865 

rule. In 1865 religious liberty was granted and Catholics 
were allowed equal political rights with other citizens. 

21. Belgium and Holland. — The Duchy of Brabant had 
long been subject to Austria previous to the Napoleonic 
wars. By the treaties of 1815 it was united to Holland 
under the name of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, and 
the Prince of Orange made king. The union was not pleas- 
ing to the Belgians, who differed from the Hollanders in 
religion and race. In 1830 an insurrection broke out, and 
the duchy now known as Belgium achieved its indepen- 
dence. Prince Leopold of Saxe-Ooburg was chosen king, 
and proved a very wise one. At his death he was suc- 
ceeded by his son, Leopold II. (1865). The little king- 
dom has rapidly increased in prosperity and population. 

22. Denmark and Portugal. — Denmark suffered severely 
in the war with Prussia and Austria, and lost the duchies 
of Schleswig and Holstein. It has since been at peace. 
Portugal, since the erection of Brazil into an independent 
empire (1826), devoted itself wholly to internal affairs 
and has almost passed out of the general current of 
European events. 



CHAPTER VI. 
THE BRITISH EMPIRE (1848-1881). 

After the Crimean War England for a number of years took no active 
part in European politics. A revolt of the natives in India was put down. 
Ill government in Ireland produced a chronic state of disaffection and misery. 

SECTION I. The Indian Mutiny. 
1. England in India. — Olive's conquest over Surajah 
Dowlah at Plassey (June 23, 1757) secured the English 

20. What of Sweden and Norway? 21. What was the kingdom of the Nether- 
lands ? Why did Belgium separate ? Who was elected king of Belgium 1 22. 
What of Denmark and Portugal ? 



a.d. 1757-1843] Modern History. 585 

domination in Bengal with its population of thirty mil- 
lions and enormous natural wealth. It took England a 
long time to realize the worth of its conquest. The gov- 
ernment of this vast empire was entrusted to a trading 
association, the British East India Company. 

2. Wellesley Governor-General. — The conquest of Ben- 
gal was followed by others, and the responsibilities of the 
company assumed an imperial character. In 1784 Pitt 
introduced a bill into the English Parliament leaving the 
general management of Indian affairs to the company, but 
transferring to the crown the final control by appointing 
a board to supervise the civil and military government of 
India. In 1798 the Marquis of Wellesley was sent out as 
governor-general. He remained seven years. During his 
administration considerable additions were made to the 
British dominions there. When he left British India it 
had a population of seventy-five millions of people. The 
British force was only twenty thousand, but the natives 
had constant wars among themselves. 

3. The Khyber Pass. — Burmah was conquered in 1824 
and a portion of its territory annexed. The English next 
entered Afghanistan, deposed the ruler (1842), and set up 
another in his place, leaving a British resident in the capi- 
tal, Cabul, to assist him in the government. As the 
troops retired the Afghans rose and cut them to pieces in 
the Khyber Pass. Only one man of the four thousand 
British escaped to tell the story of the massacre. A Bri- 
tish force returned, took Cabul, inflicted vengeance, and 
then retired. 

4. Further Conquests in India. — Scinde rose, but was 
conquered and annexed by Sir Charles Napier (1843). 
The Sikhs opposed the British advance, but, after a most 

1. How was Bengal won to England? To whom was the government entrust- 
ed ? 2. Sketch English progress in India up to 1842. 3. What happened in Af- 
ghanistan '? 4. By whom was Scinde annexed ? 



5S6 History of the World. [a.d. 1849-1858 

gallant struggle for independence, were compelled to suc- 
cumb to General G-ougli (February, 1849) and their coun- 
try, the Punjab, was added to the British dominions. In 
1856 Oude fell, and England's Indian possessions now re- 
presented a territory as large as Europe with Eussia 
thrown out, a native subject population of one hundred 
and ninety millions, exclusive of a number of tributary 
states representing fifty millions. 

5. Causes of the Revolt in India. — The government of 
this vast domain and number of divided nationalities was 
wretchedly bad, and the discontent of the natives found 
vent in a formidable insurrection which broke ont in 1857. 
The British forces were under fifty thousand men, support- 
ed by a Sepoy force, in great part officered by natives, of 
two hundred and fifty thousand. The authorities, disre- 
garding the warnings they had received, found themselves 
quite unprepared to deal with such a movement. 

6. Quelling of the Revolt. — The revolt spread with great 
rapidity, Nana Sahib, the heir of a dispossessed prince, 
becoming the leader. The Sepoys turned their arms 
against the British officers. Nana Sahib took Cawnpore, 
put the garrison to the sword, and on the approach of 
General Havelock massacred the women and children (July 
16, 1857). Havelock recaptured the city and marched to 
the relief of Lucknow, the capital of Oude, which a small 
British garrison held against an army of Sepoys. Cutting 
his way in, he maintained the siege until the arrival of Sir 
Colin Campbell with reinforcements from England (March, 
1858). 

7. On the arrival of reinforcements Delhi, Lucknow, 
and Grwalior, the chief Indian strongholds, fell in rapid 
succession, and the revolt was practically ended. The con- 

Who conquered the Sikhs? How large was British India in 1856? 5. What 
occasioned the Indian outbreak ? 6. Who led the revolt? Describe the progress 
of the revolt. 7. How was the revolt quelled ? 



a.d. 1854-1870] Modern History. 587 

test was marked by a display of savage cruelty and reprisal 
on both sides. At the close the East India Company was 
abolished as a governing authority and the government 
transferred to the crown under a responsible minister. In 
1878 the Queen of England was, under Mr. Disraeli's ad- 
vice, proclaimed Empress of India. 

SECTION II. Irish Disturbances (1854-1881). 

8. Condition of Ireland. — The condition of Ireland after 
the famine years continued deplorable. The tenants were 
absolutely at the mercy of the landlords, many of whom 
lived out of the country and cared only for the revenue 
their estates yielded them. The spirit of disaffection deep- 
ened and was fostered by the Irish who had emigrated to 
the United States. 

9. Fenian Insurrection. — An Irish society, calling itself 
the Fenian Brotherhood, was organized iu the United 
States in 1858 and soon attained to large dimensions. 
Many of its members took part in the civil war. The 
society had gained many proselytes in Ireland, and at the 
close of the civil war some of the disbanded soldiers drift- 
ed back into Ireland to foment a proposed armed insurrec- 
tion, of which the English government had complete know- 
ledge. A scattered rising occurred in 1865 and extended 
into 1867, but at no time did it attain to national propor- 
tions. The courage and self-sacrifice of many who were 
engaged in it compensated for the treachery of others, and 
its near approach to being extremely formidable aroused a 
feeling of apprehension in England. 

10. Measures of Relief; Disestablishment of the Irish 
Church; the Land Act of 1870. — Public attention in Eng- 
land was drawn to Irish affairs and to the wretched con- 

What was Queen Victoria proclaimed ? 8. Describe the condition of Ireland 
after the famine. 9. Who were the Fenians and where did they organize ? De- 
scribe the Fenian rising. What effect had it on England ? 



588 History of the World. [a.d. 1870-1880 

dition of the country. Mr. Gladstone, leader of the Libe- 
ral party, struck at one of the Irish grievances and moved 
the disestablishment of the Anglican Church in Ireland, 
which was a standing imposition. After intense opposi- 
tion the measure passed (1869). Mr. Gladstone next 
moved an Irish Land Act (1870), with the design of re- 
forming the Irish land laws so as to allow the Irish ten- 
ant some measure of protection against the landlord. 
Again after intense opposition the act was passed. It 
proved a wholly inadequate measure. An attempt to set- 
tle the educational difficulty in Ireland led to the fall of 
the Gladstone government (1874). 

11. Agitation for Home Rule in Ireland. — The Dises- 
tablishment Bill and the Land Act wrought a better feel- 
ing among the Irish people, and agitation for reform 
passed into a peaceful channel. A party, under the lead 
of Isaac Butt, arose to advocate home rule, or Irish con- 
trol of Irish affairs, and soon developed extraordinary 
strength. On the death of Butt the actual leadership 
passed into the hands of Charles Stewart Parnell, who im- 
mediately fastened on the land question, which had only 
been touched by Mr. Gladstone's act of 1870. A famine 
(1879-1880) drew the attention of the world to the wretch- 
ed condition of the Irish people. 

12. Coercion in Ireland and a Sew Land Act. — Lord 
Beaconsfield's government was overthrown in 1880 and 
Mr. Gladstone returned to power. He again took up the 
land question in Ireland, but his first measure was thrown 
out by the House of Lords. The Irish people were deeply 
exasperated, and a Land League was formed against the 
existing system of land laws. The League became so 
formidable that the government introduced a Coercion Bill 

10. What measures did Mr. Gladstone carry ? 11. What effect had these mea- 
sures on Ireland ? What of the Home Rule party? 12. What new measure did 
Gladstone propose ? What was the Land League 1 



a.d. 1881] Modern History. 589 

(1881) to put a stop to it. After the passing of the Co- 
ercion Bill Mr. Gladstone introduced his new Land Bill, 
which proved to be a large extension of his earlier mea- 
sure. But he almost nullified whatever good there lay in 
it by seizing and imprisoning, without attempt at trial, Mr. 
Parnell and the leaders of the Land League. Liberty of 
the person, liberty of the press, and liberty of speech for 
the time being did not exist in Ireland save among sup- 
porters of the government. 

13. England's Minor Wars. — Since the Crimean War 
England engaged in no European struggle. It was en- 
gaged in various wars from time to time on a small scale 
in Africa and Asia, in Abyssinia, Ashantee, South Africa, 
Afghanistan. In some of these contests British arms met 
with reverses, though they conquered in the end. They 
had great difficulty in overcoming Cetewayo, King of the 
Zulus. In this struggle Prince Louis Napoleon lost his 
life. Later on the Boers maintained their independence 
gallantly and destroyed General Colley's command (1881). 
In Afghanistan the story of the massacre of Cabul was re- 
peated in the death of Sir Louis Cavagnari, the British 
resident, slain by a rising of the populace after the de- 
parture of the British soldiery. Marching back under Sir 
Frederick Koberts, they took Cabul, defeated the insur- 
gents on every side, and avenged a severe loss inflicted on 
the British arms by Ayoob Khan near Candahar. They 
then abandoned the country, after placing Abdurrahman 
Khan on the throne. 

What of the Coercion Bill and its results ? 13. In what minor wars was Eng- 
land engaged 1 Where did she suffer reverses ? What of the Boers ? What hap- 
pened in Afghanistan? Who was put on the throne ? 



590 History of the World. [a.d. 1859-1801 

CHAPTER VII. 
THE UNITED STATES SINCE THE MEXICAN WAR. 

The arrival of large numbers of emigrants from Europe and the discovery of 
gold in California gave a new impetus to the settlement of the West. The dis- 
pute about slavery brought on a civil -war. The war tested the strength of the 
republic, and made its resources known to the world ; at the close of the war the 
republic took front rank among the great powers, though standing aloof from 
their complications. 

1. Causes of the Civil War in the United States. — The 
disputes between the Northern and Southern States on 
questions of tariff and of slavery deepened in intensity. 
During the Presidency of James Buchanan (1857-1861) 
John Brown, an anti-slavery enthusiast, sought to raise 
an insurrection among the slaves of Virginia, and libe- 
rate them by force. The movement failed, and Brown 
was hanged (December 2, 1859) by the Virginia autho- 
rities. 

2. The question of slavery became the next Presidential 
issue, there being now fifteen slave States opposed to eight- 
een free. Abraham Lincoln received the votes of all the 
free States, save three from New Jersey. His opponents 
being divided, he was elected (1860). 

3. Secession of the Southern States (1861). — The South- 
ern States seceded from the Union, South Carolina being 
the first, and formed a Confederacy of their own under 
the title of the Confederate States of America (February 
4, 1861). A constitution was adopted and an indepen- 
dent government organized. Jefferson Davis was made 
President. 

4. Beginning of the Civil War. — Fort Sumter, the fede- 

1. What of John Brown and his movement 9 2. How were the States .divided 
on the slavery question 9 Who was elected President 9 3. What action did the 
Southern States take 9 Whom did they choose as President 9 



a.d. 1861-1862] Modern History. 591 

ral fort in Charleston harbor, garrisoned by United States 
troops, was bombarded by the Confederates and taken 
(April 14). This was the signal for war, and the North 
rose in defence of the Union. A blockade of the South- 
ern ports was proclaimed and the war began in earnest. 

5. Early Battles of the War. — The first important en- 
gagement was at Bull Run, about thirty miles from Wash- 
ington, and the Union army was defeated (July 21, 1861). 
The Confederates held the line of the Mississippi River 
from the Gulf of Mexico to the southern boundary of Ken- 
tucky, and a chain of strong positions extending thence 
to the northeast corner of Virginia. It became the ob- 
ject of the North to break up and penetrate this line and 
open the Mississippi River. 

6. Operations in the West. — In the beginning of 1862 
the Federals gained some important successes in the West. 
Kentucky and most of Tennessee were lost to the South, 
and General Grant began to come to the front?. He was 
beaten at Shiloh (April 6), but, by the timely arrival of 
reinforcements, was enabled to retrieve his disaster, when 
he gained a brilliant victory. Other victories followed, 
and the Confederates were driven from Missouri. 

7. Hew Orleans captured. — An attack on Vicksburg was 
repulsed by the Confederates (December). But Admiral 
Farragut and a large fleet, in conjunction with General 
Butler at the head of an army of fifteen thousand men, 
had been forcing his way up the Mississippi from the gulf. 
The important city of New Orleans was taken and occu- 
pied by General Bntler (May 1, 1862). 

8. McClellan's Repulse at Richmond. — In Virginia the 
Federals were also victorious in the spring of the year. 
But General Banks suffered a severe defeat at the hands 

4. Tell of the bombardment of Fort Sumter. What followed ? 5. What hap- 
pened at Bull Kun ? What did the Confederates now hold 1 6. What happened 
at Shiloh and after ? 7. How was New Orleans captured ? 



592 History of the World. [a.d. 1862-1863 

of General " Stonewall " Jackson. General McClellan, 
who was chief in command of the Northern forces, ad- 
vanced on Eichmond, the Southern capital, but was re- 
pulsed and driven back after desperate fighting. Gene- 
ral Kobert E. Lee was now chief in command of the South. 
Eichmond being free, Lee boldly invaded the North. 

9. Antietam and Fredericksburg. — The invasion was 
checked at the bloody battle of Antietam (September 17, 
1862), which was indecisive in its results, save that Lee 
withdrew after it. Burnside now superseded McClellan 
in command of the North. He distinguished himself 
by meeting with a terrible defeat at Fredericksburg from 
Lee. 

10. Emancipation of the Slaves (1863) ; Chancellorsville. 
— In the following year (1863) President Lincoln pro- 
claimed the emancipation of the slaves in all the States. 
Hooker superseded Burnside, only to be defeated at Chan- 
cellorsville- (May 2 and 3), where, however, the Confede- 
rates lost their gallant general, Stonewall Jackson. Lee 
again invaded the North, and, advancing into Pennsylva- 
nia, threatened Washington. Hooker resigned and Meade 
took command. 

11. Battle of Gettysburg. — Meade met Lee at Gettys- 
burg (July 1). General Hancock's courage and skill alone 
saved the day from being disastrous to the North. The 
battle was renewed on the two following days and contest- 
ed with desperate valor on both sides, but ended in a vic- 
tory for the North. It was the turning-point of the war, 
and the South never recovered from its effects. 

12. General Grant appointed to the chief Command. — 
Lee again retreated, and on the very day of his retreat 
Grant captured Yicksburg, the great Confederate strong- 

8. What of Banks and McClellan ? Who commanded the South ? 9. What 
happened at Antietam and Fredericksburg ? 10. What proclamation did the 
President make 1 What happened at Chancellorsville ? 11. What at Gettysburg ? 



a.d. 1863-1864] Modern History. 593 

hold of the West (July 4), and an army of twenty-seven 
thousand men surrendered. The whole of the Mississippi 
was now in the hands of the Union ; the Confederacy 
was cut in two, and the South began to feel exhaustion. 
Grant followed up his victory with others, and on March 
12, 1864, was appointed general-in-chief of all the armies 
of the United States. He at once brought all his gene- 
rals to work in concert. 

13. Battles before Richmond. — Lee's army became Grant's 
objective point of attack. The Confederacy lived in it 
and Grant resolved on crushing it. His forces were vastly 
superior in point of numbers, and he had limitless re- 
sources at his back, while the Southern supplies were be- 
ing cut off and its armies used up. Lee's knowledge of 
the country and superior generalship enabled him to in- 
flict terrible losses on the Northern armies. In the bat- 
tles from May to October Grant lost a hundred thousand 
men to Lee's forty thousand; but the circle gradually 
closed in on the Southern general, and he was slowly 
driven back on Eichmond. 

14. Sheridan defeats Early ; Sherman's March to the Sea. 
— In September and October General Sheridan distinguish- 
ed himself against the Southern general, Early, whom he 
defeated and drove from the Shenandoah Valley, destroy- 
ing the crops and carrying off the cattle. Meanwhile 
General Sherman had successfully made his way to the 
city of Atlanta, Georgia, which was the chief manufac- 
tory of military supplies for the South. Capturing the 
city (September 2), he then disappeared with his army. 
Nothing was heard of him for four weeks, when he sud- 
denly appeared before Savannah, which was evacuated at 
his approach (December 20). Besting his army a month, 

12. Tell of Grant's victories in the West. To what was Grant appointed ? 13. 
What was Grant's ohject 1 Describe the battles before Richmond. 14. Tell of 
Sheridan's raid. Describe Sherman's march to the sea. 



594 History of the World. [a.d. 1864^1865 

lie then turned north to join Grant. He had isolated 
Lee and broken whatever spirit was left in the South. 

15. Fall of Richmond. — Lee was at Petersburg facing 
Grant. Johnston, in North Carolina, was the only other 
Southern general now in the field. An attempt by Lee 
to cut his way through Grant's line and join Johnston 
was repulsed. Petersburg was taken on April 3, and 
Grant entered Richmond the same day. 

16. Surrender of Lee. — Lee retreated to Lynchburg, 
Grant pursuing. There was now no escape from the cir- 
cle of the Union armies, and, seeing further resistance 
useless, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox (April 
9, 1865). On April 26 Johnston surrendered to Sherman, 
and the most gigantic civil war that the world had ever 
witnessed was over. 

17. England during the War. — The general sympathy of 
the European powers was with the Confederacy. England 
was especially active in the South's behalf and aided 
greatly in maintaining the struggle. This produced much 
ill-feeling between the two countries. The government 
of the United States maintained that Great Britain owed 
compensation for injury wrought by her acts. England 
refused to admit any liability. After long discussion the 
claim was finally submitted to international arbitration at 
Geneva, Switzerland, when the court decided that Great 
Britain was liable to the extent of fifteen and a half mil- 
lion dollars. The amount was paid. 

18. Assassination of Lincoln. — Lincoln was elected for a 
second term ; and while the country was rejoicing over 
the fall of Richmond the President was assassinated 
(April 14, 1865) at Ford's Theatre in Washington by J. 
Wilkes Booth, an actor. Booth was afterwards shot while 

15. Tell of the fall of Richmond. 16. Tell of Lee's and Johnston's surrender. 
17. How did England act during the war? How was the United States' claim 
settled ? 18. Describe the assassination of Lincoln. 



a.d. ISGj-1876] Modern History. 595 

resisting arrest. The Vice-President, Andrew Johnson, 
immediately assumed the Presidency. 

19. The War Debts. — At the close of the war the Fede- 
ral armies numbered a million men, six hundred thou- 
sand of whom were in active service. The losses on both 
sides had been enormous, as were also the debts. The 
Southern debt was wiped out by failure, the bonds and 
notes of the Confederacy becoming worthless. The North 
owed $2,750,000,000. The country set to work to pay 
this enormous sum with astonishing success, and by 1880 
the paper notes were on a par with gold. 

20. Results of the War. — The war was a terrible cala- 
mity, but it manifested to the world the strength and 
coherency of the republic, the bravery, patriotism, and 
self-sacrifice of its people, as well as its practically un- 
limited resources. The power of the democracy was shown 
in something higher than destruction, and the effect on 
other peoples was great. The United States became more 
than ever the field for foreign immigration, and by 1880 
the population had increased to 50,155,783 from the three 
millions of a century before. 

21. Negro Suffrage ; Reconstruction. — The armies dissolv- 
ed and the soldiers went peaceably back to their various 
civil avocations. The colored people were admitted to the 
right of suffrage. The question of restoring the State 
governments came up, and brought on a dispute between 
President Johnson and Congress. This resulted in the 
President's impeachment by the House of Eepresentatives, 
but after a long debate and trial he was acquitted. 

22. Grant President; the Centennial; Electoral Commis- 
sion. — In 1868 General Grant was elected President and 
served two terms. In 1876 the United States celebrated 

19. What debts were incurred by the war ? 20. What effect had the war at 
home and abroad? 21. What became of the armies? What of the colored peo- 
ple ? Why was Johnson impeached ? 



596 History of the World. [a.d. 1876-1882 

the centenary of their independence, and a great interna- 
tional exhibition was held in Philadelphia. The Presi- 
dential elections were held in the same year. The con- 
test was extremely close and exciting, and the result was 
a matter of dispute. Both candidates, Rutherford B. 
Hayes, the Republican, and Samuel J. Tilden, the De- 
mocratic choice, were declared elected by their respective 
parties. An Electoral Commission was appointed to de- 
cide on the returns, and the decision, by a majority of 
one, was given in favor of Hayes. The country accepted 
the decision. 

23. Garfield President; his Assassination; Arthur Presi- 
dent. — A strong attempt was made to nominate General 
Grant for a third term in 1880, but it was defeated, and 
General Garfield was chosen as the Republican candidate, 
his Democratic opponent being General Hancock. Gene- 
ral Garfield was elected. He was shot .at Washington by 
Charles Guiteau, a disappointed applicant for office, on 
the morning of July 2, 1881, and, after lingering in great 
agony, died (September 19). The shooting of the Presi- 
dent created a feeling of universal horror and sympathy. 
On his death Chester A. Arthur, the Vice-President, suc- 
ceeded to the Presidency. On June 30, 1882, Guiteau 
was hanged. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
THE AMERICAN CONTINENT. 

1. Natural Divisions. — The whole American continent 
has three great divisions : North America, Central Ame- 
rica, and South America. North America consists of 

22. Who succeeded Johnson? For how many terms ? What was celebrated 
in 1876 ? What dispute arose about the Presidency ? 23. Who succeeded Hayes? 
What befell Garfield? 



a.d. 1770-1775] Modern History. 597 

British America, Mexico, and the United States, with a 
population of between sixty and seventy millions. Cen- 
tral America comprises the states of Costa Eica, Guate- 
mala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and San Salvador, which, 
since 1863, have formed a union under the name of the 
States of Central America. They lie within the tropics, 
and their population is about three millions. South Ame- 
rica, which covers an area nearly as large as that of North 
America, consists of the states of Venezuela, the United 
States of Colombia, the Empire of Brazil, Uruguay, Para- 
guay, Bolivia, the Argentine Confederation, Patagonia, 
Ecuador, Peru, and Chili. The united population of 
these states is about thirty millions, Brazil being by far 
the largest and most important. 

2. Kevolt of the European Colonies. — From the discov- 
eries by Columbus and his successors down to the close 
of the last century the entire American continent lay 
under European dominion. In 1770 three European na- 
tions held the whole — England, which laid claim to all 
North America, save Mexico ; Spain, which held Mexico, 
all Central and South America, save Brazil ; Brazil be- 
longed to Portugal. In 1775 there began a series of re- 
volts which within half a century shook off the European 
yoke, save that of Great Britain in Canada. 

SECTION I. Canada. 

3. Canada under British Eule. — Canada was retained to 
Great Britain by wise concessions on the part of the home 
government. Ceded by France to England in 17G3, free- 
dom of religion was secured to the French colonists, and 
equal civil and commercial privileges with British subjects 
were guaranteed. These privileges were increased by the 

1. Give the divisions of the American continent. What do the divisions com- 
prise in area and population? 2. What nations held the American continent? 
When did the revolts begin ? 3. How was Canada retained ? 



598 History of the World. [a.d. 1775-1867 

"Quebec Act" of 1774. In 1791 local self-government 
was granted. The governor and council, appointed by 
the crown, were superseded by a legislature elected by the 
colonists. 

4. The Dominion of Canada. — There was a natural divi- 
sion known as Upper and Lower Canada, the latter peo- 
pled chiefly by persons of French and the former by persons 
of British descent. They formed two separate provinces. 
The position of Lower Canada gave it control over the 
exports and imports of the country. To obviate this a 
legislative union between the two provinces was formed 
in 1841 by which the control over general interests was 
transferred to the majority of the people. There were 
jealousies of race and religion, and a legislative union of 
the British-American colonies was formed, allowing to 
each province its local self-government. In 1867 was pass- 
ed "the British North American Act," which established 
a confederation of the whole of British North America 
under the name of the Dominion of Canada. The con- 
stitution of the Dominion is based on that of Great Bri- 
tain. The legislature consists of an Upper House, or 
Senate, of life-members, and a House of Commons, with 
a governor-general and council under the executive autho- 
rity of the British crown. The population of the Dominion 
is nearly four millions and a half, while the territory is 
almost equal in extent to the whole of Europe. 

SECTION II. Mexico. 

5. Local Divisions in Mexico. — Mexico, conquered by 
Cortez in 1521, was called New Spain, and Cortez was 
made its governor. The natives were enslaved by the con- 
querors and made to till the soil and labor in the mines. 

4. How was Canada divided ? What disputes arose between Upper and Lower 
Canada 1 What was the British North American Act ? Describe the constitu- 
tion of the Dominion. 



a.d. 1808-1821] Modern History. 599 

The country was governed by sixty-four successive viceroys 
down to 1821. As in all the Spanish-American colonies, 
the population was divided into four classes : the Span- 
iards of European birth, who held and exercised all the 
power and offices of government ; the Creoles, or pure- 
blooded descendants of Spanish settlers ; the half-breeds, 
of mixed Spanish and Indian blood ; and the pure-blood- 
ed Indians. The Creoles rapidly increased in numbers. 
Their discontent at being shut out from all posts of dis- 
tinction in the government and in the army grew with 
their numbers. 

6. Revolt of the Mexicans. — The seizure of the Spanish 
throne by Napoleon created great disturbance in Mexico. 
This was increased by the subsequent imprisonment of 
the viceroy for suspected ambitious designs (September 
10, 1808). In 1810 a revolt, headed by Don Miguel Hi- 
dalgo, a priest, broke out. Hidalgo was betrayed and 
shot (1811), but the revolt was continued by Morelos, an- 
other priest. Morelos convened a national congress at 
Chilpanzingo (September, 1813), which declared Mexico 
independent, and in the following year drew up the first 
Mexican constitution. Morelos was taken and executed 
in 1815, and the struggle became a guerrilla war. 

7. Iturbide Emperor. — A revolution in Spain gave op- 
portunity for a new outbreak, and Don Agustin Iturbide, 
a Mexican colonel, assumed the lead. He declared Mex- 
ico independent (February 24, 1821). In a few months 
the whole country, with the exception of the capital, re- 
cognized his authority. By the treaty of Cordova (Au- 
gust 24) the viceroy, Don Juan O'Donohoe, ceded posses- 
sion of the country. A regency was established with 
Iturbide at the head, O'Donohoe being one of the mem- 

5. How was Mexico governed? What caused discontent? 6. Who headed 
the first revolt 1 Tell of subsequent revolts. 7. What of Iturbide ] What titlo 
was bestowed on Iturbide ? 



600 History of the Would. [a.d. 1822-1872 

bers. On May 19, 1822, Iturbide was proclaimed Empe- 
ror of Mexico under the title of Agustin I. 

8. Proclamation of the Republic. — In December, 1822, 
Santa Anna and other chiefs proclaimed the republic at 
Vera Cruz. Iturbide abdicated and went to England. A 
congress assembled and drew up a constitution (October 
4, 1824) resembling that of . the United States, General 
Victoria being first president, and General Brayo vice- 
president. Iturbide, venturing back, was taken and shot. 

9. Series of Revolts. — There soon ensued a long and 
bloody series of revolts stirred up by rival candidates for 
the presidency. In these Santa Anna largely figured. 
The government of the United States recognized the 
Mexican Republic in 1829. An attempt of Spain to re- 
gain her lost power failed. The Church property was 
confiscated and the convents were suppressed. In 1835 
the states were converted into a consolidated republic, 
with Santa Anna at the head. The refusal of Texas to 
join the centralized government led to a long war that 
finally reached to the United States and resulted in the 
annexation of Texas by the latter power and the cession 
to it of California and New Mexico (1848). The internal 
conflicts continued in Mexico down to 1861, when Benito 
Juarez was elected president. 

10. French Expedition into Mexico. — Juarez's disregard 
for the existing agreements with the European govern- 
ments led to a convention at London (1861) of the Eng- 
lish, French, and Spanish powers. It was resolved to en- 
force the agreements on the Mexican government. But 
England and Spain soon withdrew, leaving the French 
emperor, Napoleon III., to carry out the expedition alone. 
A French force landed in Mexico, and the capital was 

8. By whom was the republic proclaimed 1 What followed the proclamation ? 
9. What now ensued ? Describe events down to the election of Juarez. 10. Tell 
of the London convention. 



a.d. 1500-1640] Modern History. 601 

soon in their hands (1863). An assembly of certain Mexi- 
can notables met and declared for an imperial government. 
At the instance of Napoleon III., and by invitation of 
the Mexican party opposed to Juarez, the Archduke Maxi- 
milian of Austria accepted the proffered crown of Mexico. 
He was supported by the French army, and Juarez was 
completely defeated. But dissensions broke out among 
Maximilian's followers, and the United States remonstrated 
at foreign interference on American soil. The French 
troops were withdrawn (1867). Juarez speedily regained 
his lost ground, and Maximilian, betrayed and captured 
at Queretaro, was shot (June 19, 1867). Juarez, elected 
a second time, held the power until his death (July 18, 
1872). Since his death the elections have proceeded 
regularly. 

SECTION III. Brazil. 

11. Brazil under Portuguese Eule. — Brazil, discovered 
by Oabral in 1500, occupies more than two-fifths of the 
South American continent and has a population to-day 
of about nine millions. After Cabral came Amerigo Ves- 
pucci, whose explorations gave the name to the whole 
continent. Portuguese colonies were established, towns 
were built along the coast, and a profitable trade was 
opened up. The annexation of Portugal to Spain under 
Philip II. (1580) exposed the colonists to the incursions 
of the French, English, and Dutch, but the Portuguese 
finally overcame them all (1654). After John IV. had re- 
sumed the Portuguese throne Brazil was erected into a 
principality and the title of Prince of Brazil bestowed on 
the heir to the throne (1640). 

12. Separation of Brazil from Portugal. — When John 

What of the French expedition ? Who was offered the crown ? What befell 
Maximilian 1 11. Describe Brazil, its people, and its struggles. Into what was 
Brazil erected ? 



602 History of the World. [a.d. 1640-1849 

VI. fled from Portugal to Brazil the restrictions on com- 
merce were removed and the laws for the colonies greatly 
improved. After the fall of Napoleon Brazil was made 
a kingdom, John VI. taking the title of King of Portu- 
gal, Algarve, and Brazil. On February 26, 1821, the Bra- 
zilians were granted their own constitution. John return- 
ed to Portugal, leaving his son Dom Pedro as regent of 
Brazil. A revolution broke out and Brazil was declared 
an independent empire, with Dom Pedro as emperor (Oc- 
tober 12, 1822). The independence was acknowledged by 
the Portuguese government on September 7, 1825. In the 
following year John VI. died and Dom Pedro became heir 
to the throne of Portugal. He sent thither his infant 
daughter, Dona Maria da Gloria. In consequence of dis- 
putes between himself and the Chamber of Deputies he 
was compelled to abdicate in favor of his son Pedro, a 
lad of six years (April 7, 1831). The country was govern- 
ed by a regency up to July 18, 1841, when the young em- 
peror was crowned. A series of revolts occurred, but they 
were finally quelled in 1849, and the emperor continued 
to reign in peace. 

SECTION IV. Other States of Central and South America. 

13. The history of the various states of Central and 
South America, previous to and after their struggle for 
independence, is to a large extent a repetition of that of 
Mexico. With the exception of Patagonia, which is in- 
habited by a savage race, and the empire of Brazil, the 
government of the states is republican in form. They 
have witnessed many revolutions, and have sometimes 
warred on each other. But with the increase of Euro- 

12. What happened under John TI. ? What followed the departure of John 
VI. 1 Sketch events down to accession of Pedro II. 13. What of other Central 
and South American states ? 



Modern History. 603 

pean immigration and the growth of foreign commerce a 
better feeling is growing up and a more prosperous fu- 
ture setting in. The religion of all Central and South 
America is Eoman Catholic ; but the Church in those 
regions is subject to grievous persecutions. The secret 
society of Freemasons is very strong and chiefly instru- 
mental in promoting the persecutions. 

What is the future prospect of these states 1 How is the Catholic Church 
treated in those regions ? Who is chiefly responsible for the persecutions ? 



Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 
Treatment Date: ^j^y ;r ; ; 

PreservationTechnologies 

A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 

111 Thomson Park Drive 
Cranberry Township, PA 1 6066 
(724) 779-2111 












' : 



»S^M 









LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




009 473 028 4 f 



■HRHi 



iiiiiipif 

: 

■li 



■ i 




Bfl 1 

1 





■HI 



HHL- 



inpi* 



■H 






■NHHHHHI 




HI 



■It 



■T 



